STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTS 2001 PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DI NTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR Recent developments his chapter discusses some of the main issues effectiveness of forest management(see and emerging trends in the forest sector, Management, conservation and sustainable focusing largely on the last two to three years. development of forest resources, p. 6). A pilot As it is impossible to cover all nev assessment of the health of the worlds developments, notable events and significant ecosystems, including forests, was undertaken trends worldwide, selected issues receiving by the United Nations Environment Programme international attention during this period have (UNEP), the World Bank and the World been highlighted. Resources Institute (WRD)(Rosen, 2000) Concern about deforestation and forest THE STATUS OF FOREST RESOURCES degradation, which are evident in many places Forest cover throughout the world, has given rise to a The global forest resources assessment 2000 number of analyses of the causes and effects FRa 2000)provides the most recent information (e.g. UN, 1996; Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998; on the state and change of forest cover, or area, and Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). The causes of globally. The results of the assessment are forest degradation and loss are complex and discussed in more detail in part II vary widely from place to place. a distinction is Forests cover about 3 870 million ha, or made between direct and underlying causes. 30 percent of the earths land area. Tropical and Major direct causes of forest degradation subtropical forests comprise 56 percent of the include insect pests and diseases; fire; worlds forests, while temperate and boreal overharvesting of industrial wood, fuelwood forests account for 44 percent. Forest plantations and other forest products; mismanagement of make up only about 5 percent of all forests; the production forests, including poor harvesting rest is natural forest. FRA 2000 revealed that the practices; overgrazing: air pollution; and estimated net annual change in forest area extreme climatic events such as storms Habitat worldwide in the 1990s was- 9. 4 million ha degradation caused by these factors and the representing the difference between the overharvesting of wildlife are major factors estimated annual rate of deforestation of 14.6 contributing to local depletion of forest-based million ha and the estimated annual rate of wildlife populations. Underlying causes include forest area increase of 5.2 million ha poverty, population growth, markets and trade in forest products, and macroeconomic policies Forest condition This section will be limited to discussion of Although global forest area and deforestation two noteworthy causes of forest damage during rates are often used to frame discussions about the 1999-2000 period: i) severe wildfires in forests, perhaps of greater significance are the many countries, with recently updated condition of forests and their ability to provide information on the wildfires of 1997 and 1998 the range of goods and services demanded of the worst years reported for wildfires and forest them. The condition of forests is even more fires in recent times: and ii) the violent storms difficult to assess than area, however. In Fra that hit Europe in December 1999. As disastrous 2000(see Part ID), an effort was made to report as these events proved, however, they have had on forest damage from various causes and to some positive outcomes and have produced assess wood supply and production. An indication of related trends is provided The spate of wildfires that occurred globally indirectly by recent efforts to assess the over the last four years catalysed national policy
Recent developments This chapter discusses some of the main issues and emerging trends in the forest sector, focusing largely on the last two to three years. As it is impossible to cover all new developments, notable events and significant trends worldwide, selected issues receiving international attention during this period have been highlighted. THE STATUS OF FOREST RESOURCES Forest cover The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) provides the most recent information on the state and change of forest cover, or area, globally. The results of the assessment are discussed in more detail in Part II. Forests cover about 3 870 million ha, or 30 percent of the earth’s land area. Tropical and subtropical forests comprise 56 percent of the world’s forests, while temperate and boreal forests account for 44 percent. Forest plantations make up only about 5 percent of all forests; the rest is natural forest. FRA 2000 revealed that the estimated net annual change in forest area worldwide in the 1990s was -9.4 million ha, representing the difference between the estimated annual rate of deforestation of 14.6 million ha and the estimated annual rate of forest area increase of 5.2 million ha. Forest condition Although global forest area and deforestation rates are often used to frame discussions about forests, perhaps of greater significance are the condition of forests and their ability to provide the range of goods and services demanded of them. The condition of forests is even more difficult to assess than area, however. In FRA 2000 (see Part II), an effort was made to report on forest damage from various causes and to assess wood supply and production. An indication of related trends is provided indirectly by recent efforts to assess the effectiveness of forest management (see Management, conservation and sustainable development of forest resources, p. 6). A pilot assessment of the health of the world’s ecosystems, including forests, was undertaken by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank and the World Resources Institute (WRI) (Rosen, 2000). Concern about deforestation and forest degradation, which are evident in many places throughout the world, has given rise to a number of analyses of the causes and effects (e.g. UN, 1996; Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998; and Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). The causes of forest degradation and loss are complex and vary widely from place to place. A distinction is made between direct and underlying causes. Major direct causes of forest degradation include insect pests and diseases; fire; overharvesting of industrial wood, fuelwood and other forest products; mismanagement of production forests, including poor harvesting practices; overgrazing; air pollution; and extreme climatic events such as storms. Habitat degradation caused by these factors and the overharvesting of wildlife are major factors contributing to local depletion of forest-based wildlife populations. Underlying causes include poverty, population growth, markets and trade in forest products, and macroeconomic policies. This section will be limited to discussion of two noteworthy causes of forest damage during the 1999-2000 period: i) severe wildfires in many countries, with recently updated information on the wildfires of 1997 and 1998 – the worst years reported for wildfires and forest fires in recent times; and ii) the violent storms that hit Europe in December 1999. As disastrous as these events proved, however, they have had some positive outcomes and have produced useful lessons. The spate of wildfires that occurred globally over the last four years catalysed national policy PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 1
2 STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTs 2001 responses and regional and international initiatives more than 800 000 ha in Mexico in 1998, said in the prevention, early warning, detection and to have been the country's most difficult control of fires Countries demonstrated their wildfire season in memory. ability to react quickly and effectively to the Although on a smaller scale than in 1997-1998, storms in Europe, which helped to minimize the the global wildfire situation in 1999-2000 was negative environmental, economic and social again serious. Fires were widespread in Indonesia impacts of the storms. Modifications in forest in 1999 and 2000, but not on a comparable scale establishment and management measures are now with the 1997-1998 period. The major fires in 2000 being proposed to reduce the potential risk of occurred in Ethiopia, the eastern Mediterranean storm damage in the future and the western United states Ethiopia had an extreme wildfire season early Forest fires. Large areas of forest around the in the year as a consequence of the delayed world caught fire in 1997 and 1998, when intense onset of the rainy season and increased land El Nino-related drought conditions prevailed. The use pressure. Burning to clear agricultural land extent of these fires and the damage attributed to in the montane forests in the southern part of hem were so immense that one united states the country led to large-scale wildfires and, by newspaper described 1998 as"the year the earth the end of the dry season in April 2000, mor caught fire". At times this seemed to be literally than 100 000 ha of these forests had been true as millions of hectares burned and smoke severely affected or destroyed by fire blanketed large regions such as Central America Wildfires burned about 2.8 million ha of forests and Southeast Asia, disrupting air and sea and grasslands in the United States (as of navigation and causing serious threats to public September 2000). The situation was safety. Seventy people were killed by the fires in particularly serious in the western states, Mexico alone. Ecosystems that an which suffered severe drought conditions. An subject to fires, such as the Amazon rain forest in enormous national firefighting effort was Brazil and the cloud forest of Chiapas in Mexico, mobilized, supplemented by firefight sustained considerable damage. Estimates of forest personnel from Australia, Canada, Mexico and cover burnt by the fires include: New Zealand. This firefighting effort cost the 9.7 million ha in Indonesia(including 6.5 United States about USSl billion. million ha in East Kalimantan), where the The prolonged drought in the eastern economic costs incurred are estimated to have Mediterranean region in mid-2000 led to a bad been between USS4.5 and USS10 billion and 75 fire year for several countries. By the end of million people were affected by the fires, September 2000, more than 150 000 ha had smoke or haze in 1997-1998 been burnt in greece. 2 The Balkan region 4.3 to 7.1 million ha in the russian federation and Turkey also suffered serious wilding (particularly Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia in1998 2.7 million ha in Mongolia in 1997; The above-mentioned fires made"headline nearly 4 million ha, or about 17.5 percent of news, yet frequently occurring and widespread the total area of the brazilian state of roraima, fires in many areas of the world do not always in the fire of 1998 receive coverage by the international press. Hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions of hectares burn annually in fire IThe material for this section was provided by R Mutch and ecosystems, including in dry zones of West Afr IGoldammer. It was collected for the special report on forest fire large areas of Africa south of the equator, Central carried out under FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessment Asia, southern Latin America and Australia. For 2000. This ongoing global study has compiled fire atistics and narratives by country and will provide a the 1990s Provisional data, not yet confirmed
2 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 responses and regional and international initiatives in the prevention, early warning, detection and control of fires. Countries demonstrated their ability to react quickly and effectively to the storms in Europe, which helped to minimize the negative environmental, economic and social impacts of the storms. Modifications in forest establishment and management measures are now being proposed to reduce the potential risk of storm damage in the future. Forest fires. 1 Large areas of forest around the world caught fire in 1997 and 1998, when intense El Niño-related drought conditions prevailed. The extent of these fires and the damage attributed to them were so immense that one United States newspaper described 1998 as “the year the earth caught fire”. At times this seemed to be literally true, as millions of hectares burned and smoke blanketed large regions such as Central America and Southeast Asia, disrupting air and sea navigation and causing serious threats to public safety. Seventy people were killed by the fires in Mexico alone. Ecosystems that are not generally subject to fires, such as the Amazon rain forest in Brazil and the cloud forest of Chiapas in Mexico, sustained considerable damage. Estimates of forest cover burnt by the fires include: • 9.7 million ha in Indonesia (including 6.5 million ha in East Kalimantan), where the economic costs incurred are estimated to have been between US$4.5 and US$10 billion and 75 million people were affected by the fires, smoke or haze in 1997-1998; • 4.3 to 7.1 million ha in the Russian Federation in 1998; • 2.7 million ha in Mongolia in 1997; • nearly 4 million ha, or about 17.5 percent of the total area of the Brazilian state of Roraima, in the fire of 1998; • more than 800 000 ha in Mexico in 1998, said to have been the country’s most difficult wildfire season in memory. Although on a smaller scale than in 1997-1998, the global wildfire situation in 1999-2000 was again serious. Fires were widespread in Indonesia in 1999 and 2000, but not on a comparable scale with the 1997-1998 period. The major fires in 2000 occurred in Ethiopia, the eastern Mediterranean and the western United States: • Ethiopia had an extreme wildfire season early in the year as a consequence of the delayed onset of the rainy season and increased land use pressure. Burning to clear agricultural land in the montane forests in the southern part of the country led to large-scale wildfires and, by the end of the dry season in April 2000, more than 100 000 ha of these forests had been severely affected or destroyed by fire. • Wildfires burned about 2.8 million ha of forests and grasslands in the United States (as of September 2000). The situation was particularly serious in the western states, which suffered severe drought conditions. An enormous national firefighting effort was mobilized, supplemented by firefighting personnel from Australia, Canada, Mexico and New Zealand. This firefighting effort cost the United States about US$1 billion. • The prolonged drought in the eastern Mediterranean region in mid-2000 led to a bad fire year for several countries. By the end of September 2000, more than 150 000 ha had been burnt in Greece.2 The Balkan region (particularly Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia) and Turkey also suffered serious wildfires. The above-mentioned fires made “headline news”, yet frequently occurring and widespread fires in many areas of the world do not always receive coverage by the international press. Hundreds of thousands, and sometimes millions, of hectares burn annually in fire-adapted ecosystems, including in dry zones of West Africa, large areas of Africa south of the equator, Central Asia, southern Latin America and Australia. For 1 The material for this section was provided by R. Mutch and J. Goldammer. It was collected for the Special report on forest fires, carried out under FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. This ongoing global study has compiled fire statistics and narratives by country and will provide a basis for understanding the global fire situation in the 1990s. 2 Provisional data, not yet confirmed
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR example, during the fire season in 2000, an forests has led to programmes involving local estimated 200 million ha were bunt in africa communities in efforts to reduce the risk of south of the equator. wildfire (e.g. Project Firefight of the World The severe wildfires witnessed over the past few Conservation Union [IUCN] and the world wide years have resulted in far greater public awareness Fund for Nature [WWFD. Community-based fire of the causes and effects of forest fires a focus management projects, most of them designed as policy-related issues and the mobilization of efforts Integrated Forest Fire Management projects, are at the national, regional and international levels. under way in several countries, including Braz a current debate in the united states is focused on the extent to which tree thinning, timber harvesting and prescribed burning might reduce fire hazards in the future. Adherence to a policy of fire exclusion for many decades has led to an Community fore nd fire prevention unnatural accumulation of fuels within fire. suppre sion in the Gambia dependent ecosystems. Fires in forests of long- needled pines now burn at much higher intensities than they did before 1900, when fires occurred The classic approach to fire prevention and fire suppression more frequently. Because they are larger and more has been largely unsuccessful in many developing countries intense, the fires today are more difficult to control This failure can mainly be explained by the lack of resources and are more damaging. necessary to operate state-controlled fire monitoring systems. While there is a common perception among the In addition land and natural resources are state-owned in most public that fires are bad for all forests, in fire- countries, so local people are not inclined to invest in their dapted forest ecosystems they are a form of management. Experience has shown, however, that people's natural disturbance that helps maintain and renew attitudes can be changed if governments grant ownership or the ecosystem and can actually improve habitat long-term user rights to the resources. quality in the long term. While the short-term The Gambia introduced community forestry on a pilot basis effects of fire may be impressively destructive, the in 1991 and began implementing it on a countrywide scale long-term ecological effects in these ecosystems in 1994. With the enactment of forest legislation in 1998, the Govemment of the Gambia fully endorsed the transfer of forest A number of studies on the Indonesian fires ownership to rural communities. A recent case study on the of 1997-1998 have examined the underlying management of forest fires through the involvement of local social and economic causes of these fires communities compares the attitudes of villagers who are in- (e.g. Rowell and Moore, 2000; Barber and volved in community forest management with those who are Schweithelm, 2000; and studies under way by not involved (FAO, 2000a). The survey reveals that the popu the Center for International Forestry Research [CiFORD. They draw a strong link between fire lation in general is very much aware of the damage caused by fire, and of its dependency on forest resources. It is not and land use policies and land management a lack of awareness that inhibits communities from partici- practices. The causes include small-scale pating in the fight against wildfires; it is a lack of incentive agricultural fires that burned out of control, the The study shows that the occurrence of fires has declined con- use of fire to clear land for large-scale siderably in the area of the country in which community plantations (e. g, oil-palm) and conflicts between forestry was started. In this area, only two fires have been eported since 1992-and both were fought successfully by Fires occurring elsewhere in Southeast Asia and the local communities concerned. The study further indicates parts of the Americas and africa are often that community management contributes to the stronger related to agricultural practices and land clearing. enforcement of laws and by-laws related to fire prevention fire is traditionally used as a land managemer because the resources are subject to effective contro ool. Evidence suggesting that burning occurs
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 3 example, during the fire season in 2000, an estimated 200 million ha were burnt in Africa south of the equator. The severe wildfires witnessed over the past few years have resulted in far greater public awareness of the causes and effects of forest fires, a focus on policy-related issues and the mobilization of efforts at the national, regional and international levels. A current debate in the United States is focused on the extent to which tree thinning, timber harvesting and prescribed burning might reduce fire hazards in the future. Adherence to a policy of fire exclusion for many decades has led to an unnatural accumulation of fuels within firedependent ecosystems. Fires in forests of longneedled pines now burn at much higher intensities than they did before 1900, when fires occurred more frequently. Because they are larger and more intense, the fires today are more difficult to control and are more damaging. While there is a common perception among the public that fires are bad for all forests, in fireadapted forest ecosystems they are a form of natural disturbance that helps maintain and renew the ecosystem and can actually improve habitat quality in the long term. While the short-term effects of fire may be impressively destructive, the long-term ecological effects in these ecosystems may be beneficial. A number of studies on the Indonesian fires of 1997-1998 have examined the underlying social and economic causes of these fires (e.g. Rowell and Moore, 2000; Barber and Schweithelm, 2000; and studies under way by the Center for International Forestry Research [CIFOR]). They draw a strong link between fires and land use policies and land management practices. The causes include small-scale agricultural fires that burned out of control, the use of fire to clear land for large-scale plantations (e.g. oil-palm) and conflicts between land users. Fires occurring elsewhere in Southeast Asia and in parts of the Americas and Africa are often related to agricultural practices and land clearing, as fire is traditionally used as a land management tool. Evidence suggesting that burning occurs significantly less often in community-managed forests has led to programmes involving local communities in efforts to reduce the risk of wildfire (e.g. Project Firefight of the World Conservation Union [IUCN] and the World Wide Fund for Nature [WWF]). Community-based fire management projects, most of them designed as Integrated Forest Fire Management projects, are under way in several countries, including Brazil, The classic approach to fire prevention and fire suppression has been largely unsuccessful in many developing countries. This failure can mainly be explained by the lack of resources necessary to operate state-controlled fire monitoring systems. In addition, land and natural resources are state-owned in most countries, so local people are not inclined to invest in their management. Experience has shown, however, that people’s attitudes can be changed if governments grant ownership or long-term user rights to the resources. The Gambia introduced community forestry on a pilot basis in 1991 and began implementing it on a countrywide scale in 1994. With the enactment of forest legislation in 1998, the Government of the Gambia fully endorsed the transfer of forest ownership to rural communities. A recent case study on the management of forest fires through the involvement of local communities compares the attitudes of villagers who are involved in community forest management with those who are not involved (FAO, 2000a). The survey reveals that the population in general is very much aware of the damage caused by fire, and of its dependency on forest resources. It is not a lack of awareness that inhibits communities from participating in the fight against wildfires; it is a lack of incentive. The study shows that the occurrence of fires has declined considerably in the area of the country in which community forestry was started. In this area, only two fires have been reported since 1992 – and both were fought successfully by the local communities concerned. The study further indicates that community management contributes to the stronger enforcement of laws and by-laws related to fire prevention because the resources are subject to more effective control. BOX 1 Community forestry and fire prevention and suppression in the Gambia
STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTs 2001 Indonesia, Mongolia and Namibia. These (SDR). GFMC monitors, forecasts and archives participatory projects involve farmers and villagers information on vegetation fires at the global in efforts to improve their use of fire (in level; provides early warning and fire agricultural land clearing, for example) and in fire monitoring services; and offers advice to prevention and suppression tasks. The successful policy-makers around the world. experience of the Gambia(see Box 1)suggests that The Fire Hazard Team, established in community-based natural resources management December 1999 by the Disaster Management may be a promising alternative to traditional fire Support Group of the Committee on Earth control methods Observation Satellites(CEOS). Comprising Many countries do not have policies or major institutions around the world that are systematic fire management strategies that enable active in the field of remote sensing of them to respond quickly or aggressively to vegetation fire occurrence and fire effects, the outbreaks of fires, although the situation is starting team will advance the use of remote sensing to change. Increasingly, countries are developing in wildland fire management. policies and practices to improve their institutional In 2000, ISDR conducted a global public capacities to prevent, prepare for and combat awareness campaign on disaster reduction, forest fires. Since the disastrous 1998 fire season the theme of which “ Disaster prevention the ministries of the environment and of Youth and education wildfires griculture in Mexico, for example, have Policy-makers are beginning to realize that a collaborated to reduce the threat of agricultural continued emphasis on emergency response will burning to forests. In Brazil, measures have been not prevent large and damaging fires in the future taken to support fire prevention programmes with The way out of the emergency response trap is to the public and to train farmers in improved couple emergency preparedness and response agricultural burning practices. Early in 2000, in with more sustainable land use Indonesia a new Directorate of Forest and Estate policies and practices. Actively working towards Fire Operations was set up under the Ministry of more sustainable forestry practices is an important Forestry and Estate Crops to strengthen the part of the strategy for improving the conservation countrys fire management capabilities. of natural resources and reducing the impacts of Recent initiatives have also been launched to wildfires promote better regional cooperation in forest fire control. For example, a new pan-Baltic forest fire Windstorms in Europe. Severe windstorms swept initiative was begun in 1998, involving the through Europe in December 1999. The first storm preparation of mechanisms for mutual assistance hit Denmark and Sweden on 3 and 4 December, in large fire emergencies. The Association of and two subsequent storms struck further south Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) set up the between 26 and 28 December, centred on france, Forest Fire Management Centre in Thailand in the germany and Switzerland. These five countries wake of the 1997-1998 fires to provide fire were the most severely affected, but many other management training and research for the asean countries sustained substantial damage. In these countries few days, the storms wreaked destruction on Several international initiatives related to forest lands and uprooted thousands of trees wildland fire awareness, prevention, preparedness, outside forests, leaving a changed landscape in management and response were initiated over the their wake. An estimated 193 million m of last two years. material was felled, and windfalls in some Three notable examples are: countries equalled several years harvests. In total, The Global Fire Monitoring Center(GFMC) established in October 1998 in Freiburg, Much of the information in this dis Germany as an activity of the UN ECE/FAO 2000a and the UN-ECE Timber Section Web site. at International Strategy for Disaster Reduction www.unece.org/trade/timber/storm/stormhtm
4 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 Indonesia, Mongolia and Namibia. These participatory projects involve farmers and villagers in efforts to improve their use of fire (in agricultural land clearing, for example) and in fire prevention and suppression tasks. The successful experience of the Gambia (see Box 1) suggests that community-based natural resources management may be a promising alternative to traditional fire control methods. Many countries do not have policies or systematic fire management strategies that enable them to respond quickly or aggressively to outbreaks of fires, although the situation is starting to change. Increasingly, countries are developing policies and practices to improve their institutional capacities to prevent, prepare for and combat forest fires. Since the disastrous 1998 fire season, the Ministries of the Environment and of Agriculture in Mexico, for example, have collaborated to reduce the threat of agricultural burning to forests. In Brazil, measures have been taken to support fire prevention programmes with the public and to train farmers in improved agricultural burning practices. Early in 2000, in Indonesia a new Directorate of Forest and Estate Fire Operations was set up under the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops to strengthen the country’s fire management capabilities. Recent initiatives have also been launched to promote better regional cooperation in forest fire control. For example, a new pan-Baltic forest fire initiative was begun in 1998, involving the preparation of mechanisms for mutual assistance in large fire emergencies. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) set up the Forest Fire Management Centre in Thailand in the wake of the 1997-1998 fires to provide fire management training and research for the ASEAN countries. Several international initiatives related to wildland fire awareness, prevention, preparedness, management and response were initiated over the last two years. Three notable examples are: • The Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), established in October 1998 in Freiburg, Germany as an activity of the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). GFMC monitors, forecasts and archives information on vegetation fires at the global level; provides early warning and fire monitoring services; and offers advice to policy-makers around the world. • The Fire Hazard Team, established in December 1999 by the Disaster Management Support Group of the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS). Comprising major institutions around the world that are active in the field of remote sensing of vegetation fire occurrence and fire effects, the team will advance the use of remote sensing in wildland fire management. • In 2000, ISDR conducted a global public awareness campaign on disaster reduction, the theme of which was “Disaster Prevention – Youth and Education: Wildfires”. Policy-makers are beginning to realize that a continued emphasis on emergency response will not prevent large and damaging fires in the future. The way out of the emergency response trap is to couple emergency preparedness and response programmes with more sustainable land use policies and practices. Actively working towards more sustainable forestry practices is an important part of the strategy for improving the conservation of natural resources and reducing the impacts of wildfires. Windstorms in Europe. 3 Severe windstorms swept through Europe in December 1999. The first storm hit Denmark and Sweden on 3 and 4 December, and two subsequent storms struck further south between 26 and 28 December, centred on France, Germany and Switzerland. These five countries were the most severely affected, but many other countries sustained substantial damage. In these few days, the storms wreaked destruction on forest lands and uprooted thousands of trees outside forests, leaving a changed landscape in their wake. An estimated 193 million m3 of material was felled, and windfalls in some countries equalled several years’ harvests. In total, 3 Much of the information in this discussion is based on UNECE/FAO, 2000a; and the UN-ECE Timber Section Web site, at: www.unece.org/trade/timber/storm/storm.htm
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR the damage represented six months of Europe's normal harvest. The consequences of the storms were far-reaching. They had a substantial impact The impact of storms on the forests on many people's livelihoods and severely France affected forests. forest-based industries and current and future markets(see Production and consumption of forest products, p. 13) On 26 December and again on 27 and 28 December 1999 In most places, the response to the storms was rapid and effective. Many governments provided two hurricanes crossed france from west to east winds assistance to their forest and forest industries reached speeds of 150 to 200 km per hour, which are un- sector (see Box 2 for a description of the situation usually high velocities for Europe. Hurricanes of the same in- in France). National responses included reduced tensity had occurred in France over the last two decades fellings in undamaged forests; log storage in Brittany and Normandy in 1987, in the central mountain- programmes; subsidies and loans to sawmills to ous area in 1982 and in northeastern france in 1990-but hold increased inventories: the diversion of they had covered a much smaller area material into wood energy markets: funding The resulting damage to France's forests exceeded that of replant, reopen forest roads, take necessary any other storm in the last century. The equivalent of two phytosanitary measures and mobilize forest annual harvests was uprooted, felled or broken. Windfalls workers and equipment; and support to transpor amounted to more than one-third of the total growing stock services, inchuding the transportation of logs in some counties. A significant proportion of the 3 million mills in distant areas. Tax relief was also provided small-and medium-sized private forest owners, together with to forest owners. and subsidies and low-interest many communes that rely heavily on forest revenues, suffered loans were available for purchasing machinery major financial hardship. In mid-January, the Government of France launched the Plan national chablis(the National Storms are not unusual in Europe - windblows Windfall Plan) which, during the first year, concentrated on of over 20 million m have occurred about ter providing support-in the form of subsidies and soft loans, times since the early 1950s- but those of for example-for log harvesting, storage and transportation December 1999 were the most destructive there in order to remove as much of the wood as possible from had been for several decades. It is not possible to the forests. The aim was to facilitate forest regeneration and say whether storms are becoming more frequent to reduce the risks of fire, insect pests and diseases or more severe in the region, but a report By the end of 2000, about half of the windfallen trees had prepared for the French authorities (Y. Birot, been removed, mainly from the more accessible and valu- personal communication)suggests that several able stands. The wood was sold at prices not exceeding 80 factors have contributed to an increase over time percent of the usual value, and often much less. State sub- in storm damage to forests in France, including: sidies, amounting to some 90 million euros(USS77 million) increased forest area per year for the period 2000-2009, have been earmarked for higher standing volume per hectare ng private owners and communes to clear and regen- their forests the replacement of (relatively wind-stable coppice, and coppice with standards, by high stands with greater height; increased planting of conifers (Douglas fir and spruce, among others), which are more example, I recommendations have been developed susceptible to wind than broad-leaved species measures that would reduce their susceptibility in in winter, when winds are strongest in Europe. the future. The silvicultural changes called for in Following the storms, many countries france and other countries include increased examined ways to reduce the possibility of reliance on natural regeneration and the use of a severe storm damage in the future. In France, for greater variety of species, inchuding hardwoods
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 5 the damage represented six months of Europe’s normal harvest. The consequences of the storms were far-reaching. They had a substantial impact on many people’s livelihoods and severely affected forests, forest-based industries and current and future markets (see Production and consumption of forest products, p. 13). In most places, the response to the storms was rapid and effective. Many governments provided assistance to their forest and forest industries sector (see Box 2 for a description of the situation in France). National responses included reduced fellings in undamaged forests; log storage programmes; subsidies and loans to sawmills to hold increased inventories; the diversion of material into wood energy markets; funding to replant, reopen forest roads, take necessary phytosanitary measures and mobilize forest workers and equipment; and support to transport services, including the transportation of logs to mills in distant areas. Tax relief was also provided to forest owners, and subsidies and low-interest loans were available for purchasing machinery and hiring emergency workers. Storms are not unusual in Europe – windblows of over 20 million m3 have occurred about ten times since the early 1950s – but those of December 1999 were the most destructive there had been for several decades. It is not possible to say whether storms are becoming more frequent or more severe in the region, but a report prepared for the French authorities (Y. Birot, personal communication) suggests that several factors have contributed to an increase over time in storm damage to forests in France, including: • increased forest area; • higher standing volume per hectare; • the replacement of (relatively wind-stable) coppice, and coppice with standards, by high forest; • stands with greater height; • increased planting of conifers (Douglas fir and spruce, among others), which are more susceptible to wind than broad-leaved species in winter, when winds are strongest in Europe. Following the storms, many countries examined ways to reduce the possibility of severe storm damage in the future. In France, for On 26 December and again on 27 and 28 December 1999, two hurricanes crossed France from west to east. Winds reached speeds of 150 to 200 km per hour, which are unusually high velocities for Europe. Hurricanes of the same intensity had occurred in France over the last two decades – in Brittany and Normandy in 1987, in the central mountainous area in 1982 and in northeastern France in 1990 – but they had covered a much smaller area. The resulting damage to France’s forests exceeded that of any other storm in the last century. The equivalent of two annual harvests was uprooted, felled or broken. Windfalls amounted to more than one-third of the total growing stock in some counties. A significant proportion of the 3 million small- and medium-sized private forest owners, together with many communes that rely heavily on forest revenues, suffered major financial hardship. In mid-January, the Government of France launched the Plan national chablis (the National Windfall Plan) which, during the first year, concentrated on providing support – in the form of subsidies and soft loans, for example – for log harvesting, storage and transportation in order to remove as much of the wood as possible from the forests. The aim was to facilitate forest regeneration and to reduce the risks of fire, insect pests and diseases. By the end of 2000, about half of the windfallen trees had been removed, mainly from the more accessible and valuable stands. The wood was sold at prices not exceeding 80 percent of the usual value, and often much less. State subsidies, amounting to some 90 million euros (US$77 million) per year for the period 2000-2009, have been earmarked for assisting private owners and communes to clear and regenerate their forests. example, recommendations have been developed on forest establishment and management measures that would reduce their susceptibility in the future. The silvicultural changes called for in France and other countries include increased reliance on natural regeneration and the use of a greater variety of species, including hardwoods. BOX 2 The impact of storms on the forests in France
VoRLD's FoRESTS 2001 It is worth noting that these measures could well management in countries that produce and ave some long-term significance for the consume tropical timber. Increased attention is biological diversity of forests in parts of Europe. being paid to combating illegal activities in the forest sector and, for the first time the issue of MANAGEMENT CONSERVATION forest corruption is being addressed openly in AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT international fora (for a more detailed discussion, OF FOREST RESOURCES see Part IL, Illegal activities and corruption in the Efforts around the world are focused on achieving forest sector) sustainable forest management, an approach that he present discussion highlights two sub balances social, economic and environmental related to forest resources development objectives. This has resulted in changes in forest biotechnology and forest plantation establishment policy and legislation in many countries. On the and two subjects related to forest management ground, changes are occurring in management and conservation-the adoption of bjectives and practices and in the range of people environmentally sound timber harvesting practices involved in planning and managing forests ind restrictions on timber harvesting. In addition, Broader approaches to forest management, such as an issue related to the management and ecosystem and landscape management, are conservation of forest-based wildlife resources is becoming more widely accepted and put into discussed: that of unsustainable hunting of tice. These bushmeat, which is an increasingly serious dynamism of ecological and social systems, the problem in some parts of the world. To necessity of adaptive management, and the complement this section, a full discussion of ke importance of collaborative decision-making. issues is provided in Part Il, Forest biological Integrated strategies for forest conservation, in diversity conservation: protected area management which the conservation of forest resources in general and of biological diversity in particular Biotechnology in the forest sector includes management both inside and outside Biotechnology encompasses a wide range of protected forest areas, are increasingly being scientific techniques that use living organisms, developed ( see Part Il, Forest biological diversity their parts, to make or modify products conservation: protected area management Conventional plant biotechnology- plant breeding At the international level, efforts to encourage has been used for thousands of years for the sustainable forest management inchude the improvement of agricultural crops but its use for development of tools and mechanisms to breeding and improvement of forest trees is more encourage the adoption of better management recent. Biotechnologies are now commonly use practices. Certification of forest products is a for tree breeding and propagation and also for market-based mechanism, devised to encourage processing applications, such as pollution control sustainable forest management(see Forest and raw material breakdown products certification- recent developments, Modern plant biotechnology has recently p. 18); a number of other international efforts to become one of the most rapidly advancing fields support sustainable forest management are of scientific research on plants, offering potential described in Part Ill, Intermational dialogue and benefits-and risks-to forestry Modern initiatives related to forests. Criteria and indicators biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into ive been developed as a way to measure three broad categories: biotechnologies based on progress towards achieving sustainable forest molecular markers; technologies that enhance management, and model and demonstration vegetative propagation; and genetic modification forests have been established to demonstrate of forest trees(see Box 3) sustainable management in practice. The Although many traditional aspects of International Tropical Timber Organization,'s Year biotechnology and its application are 2000 Objective promotes sustainable forest uncontroversial, genetically modified organisms
6 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 It is worth noting that these measures could well have some long-term significance for the biological diversity of forests in parts of Europe. MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST RESOURCES Efforts around the world are focused on achieving sustainable forest management, an approach that balances social, economic and environmental objectives. This has resulted in changes in forest policy and legislation in many countries. On the ground, changes are occurring in management objectives and practices and in the range of people involved in planning and managing forests. Broader approaches to forest management, such as ecosystem and landscape management, are becoming more widely accepted and put into practice. These approaches recognize the dynamism of ecological and social systems, the necessity of adaptive management, and the importance of collaborative decision-making. Integrated strategies for forest conservation, in which the conservation of forest resources in general and of biological diversity in particular includes management both inside and outside protected forest areas, are increasingly being developed (see Part II, Forest biological diversity conservation: protected area management). At the international level, efforts to encourage sustainable forest management include the development of tools and mechanisms to encourage the adoption of better management practices. Certification of forest products is a market-based mechanism, devised to encourage sustainable forest management (see Forest products certification – recent developments, p. 18); a number of other international efforts to support sustainable forest management are described in Part III, International dialogue and initiatives related to forests. Criteria and indicators have been developed as a way to measure progress towards achieving sustainable forest management, and model and demonstration forests have been established to demonstrate sustainable management in practice. The International Tropical Timber Organization’s Year 2000 Objective promotes sustainable forest management in countries that produce and consume tropical timber. Increased attention is being paid to combating illegal activities in the forest sector and, for the first time, the issue of forest corruption is being addressed openly in international fora (for a more detailed discussion, see Part II, Illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector). The present discussion highlights two subjects related to forest resources development – biotechnology and forest plantation establishment – and two subjects related to forest management and conservation – the adoption of environmentally sound timber harvesting practices and restrictions on timber harvesting. In addition, an issue related to the management and conservation of forest-based wildlife resources is discussed: that of unsustainable hunting of bushmeat, which is an increasingly serious problem in some parts of the world. To complement this section, a full discussion of key issues is provided in Part II, Forest biological diversity conservation: protected area management. Biotechnology in the forest sector Biotechnology encompasses a wide range of scientific techniques that use living organisms, or their parts, to make or modify products. Conventional plant biotechnology – plant breeding – has been used for thousands of years for the improvement of agricultural crops but its use for breeding and improvement of forest trees is more recent. Biotechnologies are now commonly used for tree breeding and propagation and also for processing applications, such as pollution control and raw material breakdown. Modern plant biotechnology has recently become one of the most rapidly advancing fields of scientific research on plants, offering potential benefits – and risks – to forestry. Modern biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into three broad categories: biotechnologies based on molecular markers; technologies that enhance vegetative propagation; and genetic modification of forest trees (see Box 3). Although many traditional aspects of biotechnology and its application are uncontroversial, genetically modified organisms
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR (GMOs) have become the target of an intensive and, at times, emotionally charged debate. while this attention has mainly focused on the crop sector, the debate is now entering forest Modern biotechnologies and forestry Genetic modification of forest tree species using recombinant DNa techniques has been contemplated for addressing traits such as virus resistance, insect resistance, lignin content and Modem biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into these traits into a new transgenic species ls o herbicide tolerance. Insertion of genes governing three broad categories Biotechnologies based on molecular markers which can substantial undertaking. The major limiting factor be used, inter alia, to: i) quantify genetic diversity among at present is the low level of knowledge regarding populations and individual trees; ii) identify genotypes in the molecular control of traits. This is particularly taxonomic studies, biological studies and "genetic finger- important for traits governed by an array of printing" and il) locate genes affecting quantitative traits genes, as is the case for the characteristic of economic importand interest for production forestry, for example Technologies that enhance vegetative propagation and growth rate, adaptability and stem and wood support large-scale production of uniform materials. Tissue quality culture of plants under laboratory conditions can also be There has been no reported commercial used to select traits such as disease resistance and toler production of transgenic forest trees, although 116 ance of herbicides, metals, salt and low temperatures field trials, in 17 countries and involving 24 tree Micropropagation is already used in crop and horticultural species, have been reported (Owusu, 1999). It is ecies, and techniques exist for its application in a num- acknowledged that biosafety aspects of genetically ber of forest tree species. High costs are currently an modified trees need careful consideration. impediment to the direct use of micropropagated material especially because of the long generation time of in forestry programmes trees and the potential for the dispersal of pollen Genetic modification of forest trees. The term genetically and seed over long distances. modified organism( GMO) generally refers to an organ- While the application of new biotechnologies in ism into which genetic material from other organisms has he forest sector offers interesting opportunities, been introduced especially for genetic conservation and increased production of wood and other forest products, a cautious case-by-case approach is necessary when integrating these new tools into long-term conservation in many locations. Elsewhere, wood conservation and breeding programmes. Many issues need to be evaluated more extensively. following discussion focuses on plantations for including their added value compared with that timber production. (See Part IL, The status of offered by existing conventional breeding methods: forests: the Global Forests Resources Assessment their cost; the level of capacity building and 2000. for information on the area of forest resources required to use and maintain them; their plantations worldwide in 2000. The role of forest potential impact on human health and the plantations in sustainable forest management has environment; existing regulatory and legal been the subject of considerable attention.One considerations at both the national and reason for this is that future increases in demand international levels; and consumers' preferences For example, at the International Experts Meeting on the Role Establishment of forest plantations of Planted Forests in Su management, held in Forest plantations can fulfil a number of functions. Santiago, Chile, 6-10 April 1999. Sponsored by the Plantations have been established for Governments of Chile. Denmark. India, New Zealand and Poland, this meeting provided input to the Intergovernmental environmental rehabilitation and for soil and water Forum on Forests(IFF
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 7 (GMOs) have become the target of an intensive and, at times, emotionally charged debate. While this attention has mainly focused on the crop sector, the debate is now entering forestry. Genetic modification of forest tree species using recombinant DNA techniques has been contemplated for addressing traits such as virus resistance, insect resistance, lignin content and herbicide tolerance. Insertion of genes governing these traits into a new transgenic species is a substantial undertaking. The major limiting factor at present is the low level of knowledge regarding the molecular control of traits. This is particularly important for traits governed by an array of genes, as is the case for the characteristics of most interest for production forestry, for example growth rate, adaptability and stem and wood quality. There has been no reported commercial production of transgenic forest trees, although 116 field trials, in 17 countries and involving 24 tree species, have been reported (Owusu, 1999). It is acknowledged that biosafety aspects of genetically modified trees need careful consideration, especially because of the long generation time of trees and the potential for the dispersal of pollen and seed over long distances. While the application of new biotechnologies in the forest sector offers interesting opportunities, especially for genetic conservation and increased production of wood and other forest products, a cautious case-by-case approach is necessary when integrating these new tools into long-term conservation and breeding programmes. Many issues need to be evaluated more extensively, including their added value compared with that offered by existing conventional breeding methods; their cost; the level of capacity building and resources required to use and maintain them; their potential impact on human health and the environment; existing regulatory and legal considerations at both the national and international levels; and consumers’ preferences. Establishment of forest plantations Forest plantations can fulfil a number of functions. Plantations have been established for environmental rehabilitation and for soil and water Modern biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into three broad categories: •Biotechnologies based on molecular markers which can be used, inter alia, to: i) quantify genetic diversity among populations and individual trees; ii) identify genotypes in taxonomic studies, biological studies and “genetic fingerprinting”; and iii) locate genes affecting quantitative traits of economic importance. •Technologies that enhance vegetative propagation and support large-scale production of uniform materials. Tissue culture of plants under laboratory conditions can also be used to select traits such as disease resistance and tolerance of herbicides, metals, salt and low temperatures. Micropropagation is already used in crop and horticultural species, and techniques exist for its application in a number of forest tree species. High costs are currently an impediment to the direct use of micropropagated material in forestry programmes. •Genetic modification of forest trees. The term genetically modified organism (GMO) generally refers to an organism into which genetic material from other organisms has been introduced. BOX 3 Modern biotechnologies and forestry conservation in many locations. Elsewhere, wood production has been the overriding objective. The following discussion focuses on plantations for timber production. (See Part II, The status of forests: the Global Forests Resources Assessment 2000, for information on the area of forest plantations worldwide in 2000.) The role of forest plantations in sustainable forest management has been the subject of considerable attention.4 One reason for this is that future increases in demand 4 For example, at the International Experts Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Forest Management, held in Santiago, Chile, 6-10 April 1999. Sponsored by the Governments of Chile, Denmark, India, New Zealand and Poland, this meeting provided input to the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF)
VoRLD's FoRESTS 2001 for wood are predicted to be met largely from the planned pulp and paper industry. In a few plantations. They are considered to be an efficient countries, plantations have superseded natural means to produce forest products on a relatively forests as a source of wood. In Chile, Indone limited land base, and they are therefore seen by Myanmar and South Africa, for example, many as helping to reduce deforestation and supplementing wood supplies from natural forests degradation of natural forests. However, if they has been a primary objective of plantation are poorly planned and managed and if existing establishment. In some Asian countries( China, land uses are not taken into consideration Japan and the republic of Korea)and a number of plantations can have negative environmental and European countries, plantation establishment has social impacts. This concern is reflected in the served primarily as a means of increasing or opposition to plantations that is voiced by some replenishing forest estates. New Zealand, the groups, particularly environmental non- Philippines and Thailand have withdrawn all,or governmental organizations(NGOs)and civil most, of their natural forests from timber society groups. production as a conservation strategy. Many of the The global trend is towards increased countries mentioned have substantial areas of establishment of plantations and reliance on them available land and thus have the potential for as a source of industrial wood (see box 4 ) In further plantation establishment. tropical countries, for example, plantations will be While plantations have a long history in some a particularly important source of raw material for countries, the development of a globally significant plantation estate is a relatively new phenomenon. This is illustrated by the global age- class distribution of industrial forest plantations in 95, as displayed in Figure 1. FAc plea rapid increase (Brown, in prep )suggest that some the global area of industrial plantations in 1995 comprised trees less than 15 years of age, with 21 percent planted between 1990 and 1995. The The Philippines, Mexico and China are three of several coun plantations that are older than 50 years are tries that have taken specific measures aimed at increasing located almost exclusively in temperate and In the 1930s, the Philippines had about 17 million ha of In most countries, rates of plantation forest. By 1994, however, the conversion of forests to establishment vary annually and are influenced by agriculture and other land uses had reduced the country's a range of factors, including government finances, forest area to 5. 7 million ha. In response, the government general economic conditions, incentives offered to banned logging in undisturbed and ecologically sensitive of the forests, and it recently introduced fiscal incentives for the profitability of forest activities and levels of establishment of forest plantations. The Master Plan for promotional activities. a notable feature of recent Forestry sets a target of 2.5 million ha of forest planta patterns of establishment has been the emergence tions to be established over the period 1990-2015. of Asia as the dominant region for new plantings In 1997, the Govemment of Mexico introduced a 25-year Asian plantations constituted 40 percent of global forest plantation programme, PRODEPLAN, which provides industrial plantations in 1995 and 57 percent of the economic incentives for the establishment of forest plant plantations established since 1985 ations in degraded and abandoned lands The development of forest plantations in some China plans to increase its forest cover to about 7 percent countries has already had a major impact on wood by 2010, mainly by establishing 9.7 million ha of forest production. In Chile and New Zealand, for example, plantations between 1996 and 2010 the establishment of extensive areas of plantations has enabled these countries to meet all their domestic wood needs and also to support a significant export
8 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 the planned pulp and paper industry. In a few countries, plantations have superseded natural forests as a source of wood. In Chile, Indonesia, Myanmar and South Africa, for example, supplementing wood supplies from natural forests has been a primary objective of plantation establishment. In some Asian countries (China, Japan and the Republic of Korea) and a number of European countries, plantation establishment has served primarily as a means of increasing or replenishing forest estates. New Zealand, the Philippines and Thailand have withdrawn all, or most, of their natural forests from timber production as a conservation strategy. Many of the countries mentioned have substantial areas of available land and thus have the potential for further plantation establishment. While plantations have a long history in some countries, the development of a globally significant plantation estate is a relatively new phenomenon. This is illustrated by the global ageclass distribution of industrial forest plantations in 1995, as displayed in Figure 1. FAO estimates (Brown, in prep.) suggest that some 54 percent of the global area of industrial plantations in 1995 comprised trees less than 15 years of age, with 21 percent planted between 1990 and 1995. The plantations that are older than 50 years are located almost exclusively in temperate and boreal regions. In most countries, rates of plantation establishment vary annually and are influenced by a range of factors, including government finances, general economic conditions, incentives offered to private sector interests, perceptions of the profitability of forest activities and levels of promotional activities. A notable feature of recent patterns of establishment has been the emergence of Asia as the dominant region for new plantings. Asian plantations constituted 40 percent of global industrial plantations in 1995 and 57 percent of the plantations established since 1985. The development of forest plantations in some countries has already had a major impact on wood production. In Chile and New Zealand, for example, the establishment of extensive areas of plantations has enabled these countries to meet all their domestic wood needs and also to support a significant export for wood are predicted to be met largely from plantations. They are considered to be an efficient means to produce forest products on a relatively limited land base, and they are therefore seen by many as helping to reduce deforestation and degradation of natural forests. However, if they are poorly planned and managed and if existing land uses are not taken into consideration, plantations can have negative environmental and social impacts. This concern is reflected in the opposition to plantations that is voiced by some groups, particularly environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups. The global trend is towards increased establishment of plantations and reliance on them as a source of industrial wood (see Box 4). In tropical countries, for example, plantations will be a particularly important source of raw material for The Philippines, Mexico and China are three of several countries that have taken specific measures aimed at increasing their national forest plantation areas. •In the 1930s, the Philippines had about 17 million ha of forest. By 1994, however, the conversion of forests to agriculture and other land uses had reduced the country’s forest area to 5.7 million ha. In response, the government banned logging in undisturbed and ecologically sensitive forests, and it recently introduced fiscal incentives for the establishment of forest plantations. The Master Plan for Forestry sets a target of 2.5 million ha of forest plantations to be established over the period 1990-2015. •In 1997, the Government of Mexico introduced a 25-year forest plantation programme, PRODEPLAN, which provides economic incentives for the establishment of forest plantations in degraded and abandoned lands. •China plans to increase its forest cover to about 7 percent by 2010, mainly by establishing 9.7 million ha of forest plantations between 1996 and 2010. BOX 4 Countries seeking a rapid increase in forest plantation area
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR dustry with supplies from plantations. In most other countries where the domestic IGURE 1 demand is high, however, Industrial plantation age-class structure by region, 1995 plantation-grown timber supplies and must be supplemented by Plantation area(million ha) imported timber. While the private sector has CIS and Baltic states played a major role in plantation velopment in develop countries, most plantations in South America developing countries have been North and Central America established by the government. Oceania For various reasons, government Asia plantations have generally been Africa investment, low-intensity regimes. In some developing countries, however, the private sector (inchuding both individual landowners and industries. often 011-1516-2021-2526-30 50>50 in partnership) is becoming Age class byears) more involved in forest lantations. This development has been determined by a Source: FAO data in Brown(in prep. number of factors, includi changes in land tenure and more liberal policies and legislation. Brazil, India, developed codes of practice for forest harvesting Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are some of the call for the use of environmentally sound timber countries where the private sector is playing a lead harvesting practices or RIL and substantial work role in plantation development. Financi has been done on testing and using RIL in the field. questions, including profitability and accessibility Although many countries have initiated of funds for investment, are of major importance. research, training and implementation of RIL, it Economic viability and risk issues are particularly has still not been widely accepted. The critical, both where large areas of plantations are environmental benefits of improved harvesting already controlled by the private sector and where methods over traditional methods are clear; RIL governments are offering to sell off their can reduce environmental damage associated with plantations under privatization schemes- as is the felling and skidding practices, extraordinarily large case in such diverse countries as Australia, Brazil, felling gaps or the excessive use of forest land for Chile, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand and infrastructure. It can also reduce stand damage South africa. See the state ofthe World's Forests 1999 for more details. Environmentally sound forest harvesting practices Codes of practice for forest harvesting have been prepared for The emphasis on sustainable forest management has use at the global level (FAO, 1996) and at the regional level for resulted in greater attention to environmentally Asia and the Pacific(FAO, 1999a). Aregional code is being lanned for Africa, and national codes have been prepared for sound timber harvesting practices, often referred to Fiji(1990),Vanuatu(1997), Guyana(1998)and South Africa as reduced impact logging (RIL). Recently (1999): a code for China is currently in preparation
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 9 developed codes of practice for forest harvesting6 call for the use of environmentally sound timber harvesting practices or RIL, and substantial work has been done on testing and using RIL in the field. Although many countries have initiated research, training and implementation of RIL, it has still not been widely accepted. The environmental benefits of improved harvesting methods over traditional methods are clear; RIL can reduce environmental damage associated with felling and skidding practices, extraordinarily large felling gaps or the excessive use of forest land for infrastructure. It can also reduce stand damage 5 See the State of the World’s Forests 1999 for more details. 6 Codes of practice for forest harvesting have been prepared for use at the global level (FAO, 1996) and at the regional level for Asia and the Pacific (FAO, 1999a). A regional code is being planned for Africa, and national codes have been prepared for Fiji (1990), Vanuatu (1997), Guyana (1998) and South Africa (1999); a code for China is currently in preparation. Source: FAO data in Brown (in prep.). industry with supplies from plantations. In most other countries where the domestic demand is high, however, plantation-grown timber supplies are inadequate to meet demand and must be supplemented by imported timber. While the private sector has played a major role in plantation development in developed countries, most plantations in developing countries have been established by the government. For various reasons, government plantations have generally been managed according to lowinvestment, low-intensity regimes. In some developing countries, however, the private sector (including both individual landowners and industries, often in partnership) is becoming more involved in forest plantations. This development has been determined by a number of factors, including changes in land tenure and more liberal policies and legislation. Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are some of the countries where the private sector is playing a lead role in plantation development. Financial questions, including profitability and accessibility of funds for investment, are of major importance. Economic viability and risk issues are particularly critical, both where large areas of plantations are already controlled by the private sector and where governments are offering to sell off their plantations under privatization schemes – as is the case in such diverse countries as Australia, Brazil, Chile, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand and South Africa. Environmentally sound forest harvesting practices The emphasis on sustainable forest management has resulted in greater attention to environmentally sound timber harvesting practices, often referred to as reduced impact logging (RIL).5 Recently FIGURE 1 Industrial plantation age-class structure by region, 1995 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 >50 0 50 10 15 20 25 Africa Asia Oceania North and Central America South America Europe CIS and Baltic states Plantation area (million ha) Age class (years)