STATE OF THE WORLD's FORESTs 2003 How sustainable use of forests can contribute to conserving bi iological oa diversity T he term"biological diversity"entered the part of the broader set of criteria and indicators for public vocabulary only about 15 years ago, sustainable forest management but its arrival signalled a new and more Conserving biological diversity is an ethical comprehensive approach to conservation, bringing imperative because all life has a right to exist, and er information, knowledge, awareness, humans should not knowingly cause any loss of ethics, forestry, protected areas, agricultural this diversity. From a more practical angle, practices, economics, intellectual property rights biological diversity provides many benefits to (IPRs), land tenure, trade and other elements for humans, supporting the systems that store and the holistic management of ecosystems. The cycle nutrients essential for life, absorbing and oncept has encouraged land-use planners to breaking down pollutants, recharging revise outdated approaches, such as excluding groundwater, producing soil and protecting it people from their traditional lands in the name of from excessive erosion, providing the basis for all conservation or focusing on one forest benefit to improvements to domesticated plants and the exclusion of others. It also led to the adoption animals, and providing numerous raw materials of the Convention on Biological Diversity( CBD), for industry and medicine. In more general terms, which has now been ratified by more than 180 the variation in life provides the basis for adapting countries to changing conditions. approach to the management of living resources. SOME KEY CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGICAL Its three objectives, all contained within the same DIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN sentence(thereby showing their fundamental RELATION TO FORESTS unity)are"the conservation of biological diversity, CBd defines biological diversity as the the sustainable use of its components, and the fair variability among living organisms, including and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of diversity within species, between species and of the utilization of genetic resources"(Article 1). The ecosystems. It is thus an attribute of life and a convention thus recognizes that sustainable use operty of assemblages of organisms. Strictly an essential part of conservation, and vice versa, speaking, what is used, misused, conserved or and that an equitable distribution of benefits is destroyed is not biological diversity itself but essential to achieving both. It follows that the biological resources, which CBD defines as conservation of biological diversity is an integral "genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, component of sustainable forest management. populations or any other biotic component of The present chapter explores some of the issues ecosystems with actual or potential use or value involved in conservation of biological diversity for humanity" and sustainable forest management, showing how For the first time in a binding international they are related and suggesting how criteria and instrument, the intrinsic value of biological indicators for conservation can be developed as diversity has been recognized, along with its
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 86 use sustainable How contribute can forests of biological conserving to diversity the entered” diversity biological “term The ,ago years 15 about only vocabulary public more and new a signalled arrival its but bringing, conservation to approach comprehensive ,awareness, knowledge, information together agricultural, areas protected, forestry, ethics rights property intellectual, economics, practices for elements other and trade, tenure land), IPRs( The. ecosystems of management holistic the to planners use-land encouraged has concept excluding as such, approaches outdated revise of name the in lands traditional their from people to benefit forest one on focusing or conservation adoption the to led also It. others of exclusion the ,(CBD (Diversity Biological on Convention the of 180 than more by ratified been now has which .countries modern the of essence the captures CBD .resources living of management the to approach same the within contained all, objectives three Its fundamental their showing thereby (sentence ,diversity biological of conservation the “are) unity fair the and, components its of use sustainable the of out arising benefits the of sharing equitable and The). 1 Article” (resources genetic of utilization the is use sustainable that recognizes thus convention ,versa vice and, conservation of part essential an is benefits of distribution equitable an that and the that follows It. both achieving to essential integral an is diversity biological of conservation .management forest sustainable of component issues the of some explores chapter present The diversity biological of conservation in involved how showing, management forest sustainable and and criteria how suggesting and related are they as developed be can conservation for indicators for indicators and criteria of set broader the of part .management forest sustainable ethical an is diversity biological Conserving and, exist to right a has life all because imperative of loss any cause knowingly not should humans ,angle practical more a From. diversity this to benefits many provides diversity biological and store that systems the supporting, humans and absorbing, life for essential nutrients cycle recharging, pollutants down breaking it protecting and soil producing, groundwater all for basis the providing, erosion excessive from and plants domesticated to improvements materials raw numerous providing and, animals ,terms general more In. medicine and industry for adapting for basis the provides life in variation the .conditions changing to BIOLOGICAL IN CONCEPTS KEY SOME IN CONSERVATION DIVERSITY FORESTS TO RELATION the as diversity biological defines CBD including, organisms living among variability of and species between, species within diversity a and life of attribute an thus is It. ecosystems Strictly. organisms of assemblages of property or conserved, misused, used is what, speaking but itself diversity biological not is destroyed as defines CBD which, resources biological ,thereof parts or organisms, resources genetic“ of component biotic other any or populations value or use potential or actual with ecosystems .“humanity for international binding a in time first the For biological of value intrinsic the, instrument its with along, recognized been has diversity
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR cological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, invasive alien species and climate change, is a ducational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic major challenge for forest managers, requiring value. However, the main focus is on benefits to judgements about the scale on which benefits are people from the sustainable use of biological to be delivered to people. As Daily et al. (1997) resources COr The people who use these biological resources tree species somewhere in the world would not have many different needs, interests, cultures and help the inhabitants of a town inundated by goals. The global industrial society that flooding because of the clearing of a pine fore: characterizes the modern world consumes vast upstream. Generally, the flow of ecosystem goods amounts of such forest resources as timber, fibre, and services in a region is determined by the type, food and fodder. Thus, macroeconomic decisions spatial layout, extent, and proximity of the taken far away from forests often determine the ecosystems supplying them. "Because forests are fate of forest biological diversity and the way land dynamic, highly complex and unique to the site in is used. The forested areas where species diversity which they are located, it is not sufficient to is richest are often remote from the centres of conserve one minimum viable population of a power, but the people who live in these areas are species or one example of an ecosystem. Instead, trongly affected by economic decisions taken in conservation approaches must recognize the distant capitals. Although forest residents also dynamism of systems, the dependence of local make decisions about resources that may result in people on forest resources and the need to build the conversion of a forest into another form of redundancy into systems of protecting biological land use or the local extinction of a species, diversit evidence indicates that people who have lived for Approaches being developed under many a long time on the land seldom cause such forest-related international agreements and programmes call for forests to be managed to meet New research on forest ecosystems is being multiple national objectives, including: supplying applied to the conservation of biological diversity. timber, fibre and energy; keeping options open for Findings indicate that forests are loose, temporary assemblages of species, each of which behaves ng to its own needs, depending FIGURE 6 physiology, morphology, demography, behaviour Complexity and dynamism of forests: a diversity of structures and dispersal capacity. "Because of a continual is needed to protect all species turnover of ecological conditions, local communities show a continual turnover of species, at one time gaining species because the vanna scale of processes allows a certain type of trait, and at others losing them again because the same trait ppens to have resulted in too great a risk of extinction. Biological diversity is both the result and expression of all sorts of adaptations of life to the environmental turmoil; it can only be Dense maintained as long as this turmoil exists" (Hengeveld, 1994). These new insights are the basis of managing dynamic ecosystems as a owning the many different forest structures found in nature oliver and Larson 1996)(Figure 6) Constant changes in forest structure and species composition result from plant Conserving this natural dynamism in the face of growth, disturbances, species migration, climate cha and other processes unnatural pressures, such as fragmentation, Source: Oliver and Larson, 1996
87 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART ,scientific, economic, social, genetic, ecological aesthetic and recreational, cultural, educational to benefits on is focus main the, However. value biological of use sustainable the from people .resources resources biological these use who people The and cultures, interests, needs different many have that society industrial global The. goals vast consumes world modern the characterizes ,fibre, timber as resources forest such of amounts decisions macroeconomic, Thus. fodder and food the determine often forests from away far taken land way the and diversity biological forest of fate diversity species where areas forested The. used is of centres the from remote often are richest is are areas these in live who people the but, power in taken decisions economic by affected strongly also residents forest Although. capitals distant in result may that resources about decisions make of form another into forest a of conversion the ,species a of extinction local the or use land for lived have who people that indicates evidence such cause seldom land the on time long a .extinctions being is ecosystems forest on research New .diversity biological of conservation the to applied temporary, loose are forests that indicate Findings behaves which of each, species of assemblages specific on depending, needs own its to according behaviour, demography, morphology, physiology continual a of Because. “capacity dispersal and local, conditions ecological of turnover of turnover continual a show communities the because species gaining time one at, species and, trait of type certain a allows processes of scale trait same the because again them losing others at of risk a great too in resulted have to happens result the both is diversity Biological. extinction to life of adaptations of sorts all of expression and be only can it; turmoil environmental the “exists turmoil this as long as maintained the are insights new These). 1994, Hengeveld( a as ecosystems dynamic managing of basis forest different many the recognizing, whole ,Larson and Oliver (nature in found structures .(6 Figure) (1996 of face the in dynamism natural this Conserving ,fragmentation as such, pressures unnatural a is, change climate and species alien invasive requiring, managers forest for challenge major are benefits which on scale the about judgements (1997. (al et Daily As. people to delivered be to coniferous of existence continued The: “out point not would world the in somewhere species tree by inundated town a of inhabitants the help forest pine a of clearing the of because flooding goods ecosystem of flow the, Generally. upstream ,type the by determined is region a in services and the of proximity and, extent, layout spatial are forests Because.” them supplying ecosystems in site the to unique and complex highly, dynamic to sufficient not is it, located are they which a of population viable minimum one conserve ,Instead. ecosystem an of example one or species the recognize must approaches conservation local of dependence the, systems of dynamism build to need the and resources forest on people biological protecting of systems into redundancy .diversity many under developed being Approaches and agreements international related-forest meet to managed be to forests for call programmes supplying: including, objectives national multiple for open options keeping; energy and fibre, timber plant from result composition species and structure forest in changes Constant .processes other and changes climate, migration species, disturbances, growth .1996, Larson and Oliver: Source Open Savannah Dense Understorey Complex 6 FIGURE structures of diversity a: forests of dynamism and Complexity species all protect to needed is
STATE OF THE WORLDS FORESTS 2003 future economic use; fulfilling an aesthetic Because so many of the birds of Indonesia are function; and providing the nations share of restricted to single islands, logging concessions global benefits. If these sometimes conflicting need to be examined at an individual island level objectives are to be achieved at a time of rising to ensure that endemic forms are not threatened xpectations and shrinking government budgets, (Marsden, 1998) new approaches are required. The development of For some species of forest bird, fragmentation appropriate policies for managing forests in the reduces nesting success, and hence the number of twen ty-first try warrants consideration of spring that they can produce some of the critical issues facing the conservation temperate forests, fragmentation exposes some species to greater rat mammals and nest parasitism(in which birds lay CRITICAL ISSUES IN CONSERVING eggs in the nests of other species, which then raise FOREST BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY these offspring at the expense of their own) Although deforestation is widely recognized as a species in the most fragmented landscapes that major conservation issue, the related issue of their populations depend on immigration of other habitat fragmentation receives insufficient populations from areas with more extensive forest attention. as human pressure increases in both cover(robinson et al., 1995; Askins, 1995) temperate and tropical forests, areas that were Conservation strategies therefore need to ensure once continuously forested have become more the preservation and restoration of large fragmented In the Brazilian Amazon alone, the continuous forest habitats in each region. area of forest that is now fr ed (with forests Research on the impact of natural forest less than 10 000 ha iner)or prone to edge fragmentation on the distribution of mammals in effects(less than 1 km from clearings)is more Lope reserve in central Gabon found that total than 150 percent greater than the area that has mammal biomass was highest in the forest actually been deforested. Recent research fragments, at 6 010 kg per squakilometre Of indicates that small fragments have very different eight species of primate, four were more common, forest, containing more light-loving species, more much less common in the fragmented habitat 3 ecosystem characteristics from larger areas of two occurred with similar densities, and two were trees with wind-or water-dispersed seeds or Most mammal species moved between fruits, and relatively few understorey species. The continuous forest and forest fragments, but a few smaller fragments also have a greater density of resided permanently in some fragments. The tree falls, a more irregular canopy, more weedy diversity and high biomass of large mammals species and unusually abundant vines, lianas and found within the forest fragments suggests that bamboos. Thus, they preserve only a highly fragmentation per se will not be catastrophic for biased subset of the original flora and fauna, most of these species. However, since logging which is adapted to these conditions(Laurance, typically results in greatly increased hunting 999: Laurance et al. 2000) sometimes only to feed the logging crews, but A study comparing the density of lowland more often to sell meat and other animal products birds in unlogged and recently logged forests in on lucrative international markets-the remaining Seram, Indonesia found that few bird species structurally intact forest may be emptied of were excluded from logged forest and several primates and other large mammals and birds were common in both habitats. Species that were (Tutin, White and MacKanga-Missandzou, 1997) rare in unlogged forests were no more likely to urveys conducted over 28 years in Kibale decline after logging than were the common ones. National Park, Uganda quantified the long-term However, while birds with restricted global effects of both low-and high-intensity selective ranges fared no worse than widespread species, logging on the density of five common primates several endemic forms were seriously affected The results suggest that, in this region at least
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 88 aesthetic an fulfilling; use economic future of share s’nation the providing and; function conflicting sometimes these If. benefits global rising of time a at achieved be to are objectives ,budgets government shrinking and expectations of development The. required are approaches new the in forests managing for policies appropriate of consideration warrants century first-twenty conservation the facing issues critical the of some .diversity biological forest of CONSERVING IN ISSUES CRITICAL DIVERSITY BIOLOGICAL FOREST Fragmentation a as recognized widely is deforestation Although of issue related the, issue conservation major insufficient receives fragmentation habitat both in increases pressure human As. attention were that areas, forests tropical and temperate more become have forested continuously once the, alone Amazon Brazilian the In. fragmented forests with (fragmented now is that forest of area edge to prone or) ea ar in ha 000 10 than less more is) clearings from km 1 than less (effects has that area the than greater percent 150 than research Recent. deforested been actually different very have fragments small that indicates of areas larger from characteristics ecosystem more, species loving-light more containing, forest or seeds dispersed-water or- wind with trees The. species understorey few relatively and, fruits of density greater a have also fragments smaller weedy more, canopy irregular more a, falls tree and lianas, vines abundant unusually and species highly a only preserve they, Thus. bamboos ,fauna and flora original the of subset biased ,Laurance (conditions these to adapted is which .(2000., al et Laurance; 1999 lowland of density the comparing study A in forests logged recently and unlogged in birds species bird few that found Indonesia, Seram several and forest logged from excluded were were that Species. habitats both in common were to likely more no were forests unlogged in rare .ones common the were than logging after decline global restricted with birds while, However ,species widespread than worse no fared ranges .affected seriously were forms endemic several are Indonesia of birds the of many so Because concessions logging, islands single to restricted level island individual an at examined be to need threatened not are forms endemic that ensure to .(1998, Marsden( fragmentation, bird forest of species some For of number the hence and, success nesting reduces some In. produce can they that offspring some exposes fragmentation, forests temperate by predation nest of rates greater to species lay birds which in (parasitism nest and mammals raise then which, species other of nests the in eggs .(own their of expense the at offspring these some for low so sometimes are rates Reproduction that landscapes fragmented most the in species other of immigration on depend populations their forest extensive more with areas from populations .(1995, Askins; 1995., al et Robinson (cover ensure to need therefore strategies Conservation ,large of restoration and preservation the .region each in habitats forest continuous forest natural of impact the on Research in mammals of distribution the on fragmentation total that found Gabon central in Reserve Lope forest the in highest was biomass mammal Of. kilometre e squar per kg 010 6 at, fragments ,common more were four, primate of species eight were two and, densities similar with occurred two .habitat fragmented the in common less much between moved species mammal Most few a but, fragments forest and forest continuous The. fragments some in permanently resided mammals large of biomass high and diversity that suggests fragments forest the within found for catastrophic be not will se per fragmentation logging since, However. species these of most – hunting increased greatly in results typically but, crews logging the feed to only sometimes products animal other and meat sell to often more remaining the – markets international lucrative on of emptied be may forest intact structurally birds and mammals large other and primates .(1997, Missandzou-MacKanga and White, Tutin( Kibale in years 28 over conducted Surveys term-long the quantified Uganda, Park National selective intensity-high and- low both of effects .primates common five of density the on logging ,least at region this in, that suggest results The
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR low-intensity selective logging could be one Perhaps even worse are invasive alien species component of plans to conserve primates. On the that are introduced unintentionally, such as disease other hand, high-intensity logging, typical of most organisms that can devastate an entire tree spec logging operations in the tropics, is incompatible (e.g. Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight in with primate conservation( Chapman et aL., 2000). North America)or pests that can have a major effect on native forests or plantations(e.g. gypsy Invasive alien species moths and long-horned beetles). The economic As the global movement of people and products impact of such species amounts to several hundred expands, so does the movement of plant and billion dollars per year(Perrings, Williamson and animal species from one part of the world to DaImazzone, 2000), much of it in forested another. When a species is introduced into a new ecosystems, even within well-protected national habitat-for example, oil palm from Africa into parks. The 1951 International Plant Protection Indonesia, Eucalyptus species from Australia into Convention was established to address some of California, and rubber from Brazil into Malaysia- these issues, and new international programmes the alien species typically requires human are now addressing the most serious problems intervention to survive and reproduce. Indeed, The World Conservation Union(IUCN)has many of the most popular species of tree used for developed a global strategy ( McNeely et al., 2001), groforestry are alien or non-native and prosper in and best practices for prevention and management their new environments partly because they no have been identified(Wittenberg and Cock, 2001) longer face the same competitors, predators and However, as global trade grows, so does the threat pests as in their native environment. Such alien from devastating invasive species of insect and species are economically very important and athogen. They could fundamentally alter natural enhance the production of various forest forests and wipe out tree plantations, the latter commodities in many parts of the world being especially vulnerable because of their lower In some cases, however, species introduced species diversity Efforts related to both intentionally become established in the wild and conservation of biological diversity and sustainable spread at the expense of native species, affecting forest management need to recognize clearly and entire ecosystems. Notorious examples of suc address the issue of invasive alien species invasion by alien woody species inc introduction of kudzu( Pueraria lobata)from Japan Climate change and China into the United States, where it now Forests are often highly sensitive to climate, infests over 2 million hectares; the ecological judging by the past distribution of forest types takeover of the Polynesian island of Tahiti by during periods with different climates and by the Miconia calvescens; the spread of various species of vegetation bands on mountains. While the Northern Hemisphere pine and Australian acacia Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in southern Africa; and the invasion of Floridas(IPCC)and associated national research Everglades National Park by Melaleuca species programmes are generating valuable new from South America. Of the 2 000 or so species information, forecasts of the potential impact of that are used in agroforestry, perhaps as many as climate change on forests remain somewhat 10 percent are invasive. Although only about speculative. Some contend that the most significant rcent are highly invasive, they include threats are drying trends, changes in rainfall opular species such as Casuarina glauca, Leucaena patterns, changes in fire regimes and changes in Great care is required to ensure that such spedes species distribution and composition. Other ges in nd Pinus radiata(ri ality, which would in turn lead to chang serve the economic purposes for which they were suggest that forests may be equally affected by the introduced and do not escape to cause indirect effects of climate on soil properties or on unanticipated negative effects on native reproduction. In the final analysis, the most ecosystem important factor may well be the impact of climate
89 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART one be could logging selective intensity-low the On. primates conserve to plans of component most of typical, logging intensity-high, hand other incompatible is, tropics the in operations logging .(2000., al et Chapman (conservation primate with species alien Invasive products and people of movement global the As and plant of movement the does so, expands to world the of part one from species animal new a into introduced is species a When. another into Africa from palm oil, example for – habitat into Australia from species Eucalyptus, Indonesia – Malaysia into Brazil from rubber and, California human requires typically species alien the ,Indeed. reproduce and survive to intervention for used tree of species popular most the of many in prosper and native-non or alien are agroforestry no they because partly environments new their and predators, competitors same the face longer alien Such. environment native their in as pests and important very economically are species forest various of production the enhance .world the of parts many in commodities introduced species, however, cases some In and wild the in established become intentionally affecting, species native of expense the at spread such of examples Notorious. ecosystems entire the include species woody alien by invasion Japan from) lobata Pueraria (kudzu of introduction now it where, States United the into China and ecological the; hectares million 2 over infests by Tahiti of island Polynesian the of takeover of species various of spread the; calvescens Miconia acacia Australian and pine Hemisphere Northern s’Florida of invasion the and; Africa southern in species Melaleuca by Park National Everglades species so or 000 2 the Of. America South from as many as perhaps, agroforestry in used are that about only Although. invasive are percent 10 include they, invasive highly are percent 1 Leucaena, glauca Casuarina as such species popular .(1999, Richardson (radiata Pinus and leucocephala species such that ensure to required is care Great were they which for purposes economic the serve cause to escape not do and introduced native on effects negative unanticipated .ecosystems species alien invasive are worse even Perhaps disease as such, unintentionally introduced are that species tree entire an devastate can that organisms in blight chestnut and disease elm Dutch. g.e( major a have can that pests or) America North gypsy. g.e (plantations or forests native on effect economic The). beetles horned-long and moths hundred several to amounts species such of impact and Williamson, Perrings (year per dollars billion forested in it of much), 2000, Dalmazzone national protected-well within even, ecosystems Protection Plant International 1951 The. parks of some address to established was Convention programmes international new and, issues these .problems serious most the addressing now are has) IUCN (Union Conservation World The ,(2001., al et McNeely (strategy global a developed management and prevention for practices best and .(2001, Cock and Wittenberg (identified been have threat the does so, grows trade global as, However and insect of species invasive devastating from natural alter fundamentally could They. pathogen latter the, plantations tree out wipe and forests lower their of because vulnerable especially being both to related Efforts. diversity species sustainable and diversity biological of conservation and clearly recognize to need management forest .species alien invasive of issue the address change Climate ,climate to sensitive highly often are Forests types forest of distribution past the by judging the by and climates different with periods during the While. mountains on bands vegetation Change Climate on Panel Intergovernmental research national associated and) IPCC( new valuable generating are programmes of impact potential the of forecasts, information somewhat remain forests on change climate significant most the that contend Some. speculative rainfall in changes, trends drying are threats in changes and regimes fire in changes, patterns in changes to lead turn in would which, seasonality Others. composition and distribution species the by affected equally be may forests that suggest on or properties soil on climate of effects indirect most the, analysis final the In. reproduction climate of impact the be well may factor important
STATE OF THE WORLD'S FORESTs 2003 change on human populations, affecting delivery of multiple goods and services. The settlement and consumption patterns, which will public expects forestry plans to provide then influence how forests are used. Nonetheless, adequately for the protection of watersheds, the capacity of tree species to shift their ranges in indigenous people to be able to occupy their 4x0giCal factors, such as dispersal mechanisms. economically valuable forests),asystem of s sponse to climate change also depends on traditional homelands(even if they are in Trees propagated by seeds that are scattered by the protected areas to cover all major ecosystem types wind or carried by animals may disperse more in the country, and any exploitation of timber and easily than others(Peters and Lovejoy, 1992). In other forest products to be sustainable Sustainable addition, the changing ranges of animal species forest management based on ecosystem principles may affect those tree species that depend on them -such as maintaining healthy breeding populations, conserving soils, avoiding erosion, a growing body of research has examined the allowing natural fire regimes and carefully ible effects of climate chang planning roads to minimize impact-is therefore species and biotic communities. Findings suggest entirely consistent with what is required to that biological communities will shift in intricate conserve biological diversi and unexpected ways as the geographical Managing natural forests for sustainability distribution of species is altered individually requires moving beyond the outdated concept of rather than in community units( FAUNMAP maximum sustainable yield. In many parts of the 996). Furthermore, because species are world, the focus on this aspect has simplified the interrelated, any advantage falling to a given forest structure, replacing natural mixed forest species in an ecosystem will affect other species in with single-species and even-aged monocultures ways that are not always predictable. As climates While the area of planted forests is still very small change, the rates of species invasion and (less than 5 percent of total forest area), the extinction are likely to accelerate, bringing about selection and breeding of planting stock -and in complex changes in species composition and some cases intensive management-tend to interaction(Mooney and Hobbs, 2000). Thus, narrow genetic diversity and reduce the number of rather than causing a simple northward or uphill associated species. Intensifying the management of ifting of ecosystems with all inhabitants intact, natural and planted forests has often involved communities and force evolutionary changes y climate changes will reorganize forest biological eliminating competing species, draining wetlands, suppressing natural fires and accelerating rotation Populations located near the edge of a species cycles. At least in the short term, these activities range, narrowly endemic species and endangered have led to an increase in productivity, often at the species that exist only in protected areas or other expense of forest quality because of threats to limited habitats are especially vulnerable to forest-dwelling fauna and increased vulnerability regional vegetation shifts. Species already to various pests. Sustained-yield forestry, designed threatened by direct exploitation, habitat loss and to provide a steady stream of timber, is therefor habitat degradation are likely to be particularly not synonymous with sustainable forest susceptible to new threats(Peters and Lovejoy, management, which gives greater attention to 1992: Schneider and root, 2002) various ecological processes and the range of elated goods and services NTERFACE BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE FOREST Sustainably produced timber MANAGEMENT Since timber is the most valuable forest product in While timber production often dominated the way many forest ecosystems, a critical question is how which forests were managed in the twentieth it can be produced sustainably without depleting century, new pressures in the twenty-first century biological diversity. Natural forest management is demand a more nuanced approach, calling for the widely advocated as the best hope of making
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 90 affecting, populations human on change will which, patterns consumption and settlement ,Nonetheless. used are forests how influence then in ranges their shift to species tree of capacity the on depends also change climate to response .mechanisms dispersal as such, factors ecological the by scattered are that seeds by propagated Trees more disperse may animals by carried or wind In). 1992, Lovejoy and Peters (others than easily species animal of ranges changing the, addition them on depend that species tree those affect may .propagation for the examined has research of body growing A individual on change climate of effects possible suggest Findings. communities biotic and species intricate in shift will communities biological that geographical the as ways unexpected and individually altered is species of distribution ,FAUNMAP (units community in than rather are species because, Furthermore). 1996 given a to falling advantage any, interrelated in species other affect will ecosystem an in species climates As. predictable always not are that ways and invasion species of rates the, change about bringing, accelerate to likely are extinction and composition species in changes complex ,Thus). 2000, Hobbs and Mooney (interaction uphill or northward simple a causing than rather ,intact inhabitants all with ecosystems of shifting biological forest reorganize will changes climate .changes evolutionary force and communities ‘species a of edge the near located Populations endangered and species endemic narrowly, range other or areas protected in only exist that species to vulnerable especially are habitats limited already Species. shifts vegetation regional and loss habitat, exploitation direct by threatened particularly be to likely are degradation habitat ,Lovejoy and Peters (threats new to susceptible .(2002, Root and Schneider; 1992 BIOLOGICAL BETWEEN INTERFACE FOREST SUSTAINABLE AND DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT way the dominated often production timber While twentieth the in managed were forests which in century first-twenty the in pressures new, century the for calling, approach nuanced more a demand The. services and goods multiple of delivery provide to plans forestry expects public ,watersheds of protection the for adequately their occupy to able be to people indigenous in are they if even (homelands traditional of system a), forests valuable economically types ecosystem major all cover to areas protected and timber of exploitation any and, country the in Sustainable. sustainable be to products forest other principles ecosystem on based management forest breeding healthy maintaining as such– ,erosion avoiding, soils conserving, populations carefully and regimes fire natural allowing therefore is – impact minimize to roads planning to required is what with consistent entirely .diversity biological conserve sustainability for forests natural Managing of concept outdated the beyond moving requires the of parts many In. yield sustainable maximum the simplified has aspect this on focus the, world forest mixed natural replacing, structure forest .monocultures aged-even and species-single with small very still is forests planted of area the While the), area forest total of percent 5 than less( in and – stock planting of breeding and selection to tend – management intensive cases some of number the reduce and diversity genetic narrow of management the Intensifying. species associated involved often has forests planted and natural ,wetlands draining, species competing eliminating rotation accelerating and fires natural suppressing activities these, term short the in least At. cycles the at often, productivity in increase an to led have to threats of because quality forest of expense vulnerability increased and fauna dwelling-forest designed, forestry yield-Sustained. pests various to therefore is, timber of stream steady a provide to forest sustainable with synonymous not to attention greater gives which, management of range the and processes ecological various .services and goods related timber produced Sustainably in product forest valuable most the is timber Since how is question critical a, ecosystems forest many depleting without sustainably produced be can it is management forest Natural. diversity biological making of hope best the as advocated widely
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR 91 forest land more profitable while maintaining these non-wood forest products(NWFPs) are of biological diversity. Post-harvest surveys of a particular value to the local people, providing a spectrum of tropical forests indicate a range of ready store of products to meet their everyda logging effects, from local extirpation to needs for health, food and aesthetic pleasure substantial increases in the local density of some Animal species are also highly valued at the local pecies( Bawa and Seidler, 1998). This suggests and global levels, with the trade in skins, meat and that there are no easy answers. live animals accounting for hundreds of millions A review of research on the impact of logging of dollars per year(Reynolds et aL., 2001) practices on tropical forest ecosystems and Although people in rural areas depend on biological diversity concluded that the logging of hunting as a source of food or income and have mature forests commonly leads to a local increase been sustainably harvesting wild products for microclimatic changes create patches of habitat and more sophisticated technology and changi n on, in species diversity as structural and associated thousands of years, todays increasing populat food resources that are attractive to species ocial, economic and political structures have typically residing in secondary forest and forest removed most traditional controls over how such edges (ohns, 1997). However, populations of resources are harvested. Serious problems many taxa typically resident in forest understoreys concerning hunting seem particularly difficult to markedly decline and remain locally scarce or address where governance is weak. Moreover, absent for many years. Thus the most appropriate with greater access to remote forest areas and high compromise between logging and the conservation prices on the international market, wildlife of biological diversity in tropical forests is to have management agencies are too stretched to deal small undisturbed forest areas preserved within a with increased incidences of overharvesting larger matrix of production forest, a prescription If benefits are to be provided on a sustainable that is being attempted in peninsular Malaysia and basis to local communities and to countries at large, more effective controls may be required to Several studies indicate that sustained timber- yield management of tropical moist forest can be echnically and economically feasible(rietbergen, TABLE 1993: Dykstra and Heinrich, 1992; Poore et al Selected economic uses of Southeast Asian 1989), although little such technology is as yet tropical rain forest plants being applied. However, it is possible, especially with low-intensity selective felling, to design harvesting operations that satisfy requirements for environmental, social and economic sustainability while reducing costs by a substantial margin Timber trees Recent developments in certifying environment friendly timber indicate that progress is being Ornamental plants 52 made on the timber production side of sustainable forest management(Donovan, 2001 ), especially in Edible fruits and nuts temperate forests Fibres Non-wood forest products oisonous and insecticidal plants While timber is economically the most important 110 forest product, many other products are valued Spices and condiments both on world markets and by local people. One study found that nearly 6 000 species of rain foest Total plants in Southeast Asia have economic uses Source: lansen et al., 1991 hansen et al, 1991; see Table 8). Moreover, many of
91 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART maintaining while profitable more land forest a of surveys harvest-Post. diversity biological of range a indicate forests tropical of spectrum to extirpation local from, effects logging some of density local the in increases substantial suggests This). 1998, Seidler and Bawa (species .answers easy no are there that logging of impact the on research of review A and ecosystems forest tropical on practices of logging the that concluded diversity biological increase local a to leads commonly forests mature associated and structural as diversity species in and habitat of patches create changes microclimatic species to attractive are that resources food forest and forest secondary in residing typically of populations, However). 1997, Johns (edges understoreys forest in resident typically taxa many or scarce locally remain and decline markedly appropriate most the Thus. years many for absent conservation the and logging between compromise have to is forests tropical in diversity biological of a within preserved areas forest undisturbed small prescription a, forest production of matrix larger and Malaysia peninsular in attempted being is that .(1989., al et Poore (elsewhere be can forest moist tropical of management yieldtimber sustained that indicate studies Several ,Rietbergen (feasible economically and technically ,.al et Poore; 1992, Heinrich and Dykstra; 1993 yet as is technology such little although), 1989 especially, possible is it, However. applied being design to, felling selective intensity-low with for requirements satisfy that operations harvesting sustainability economic and social, environmental .margin substantial a by costs reducing while being is progress that indicate timber friendlyenvironment certifying in developments Recent sustainable of side production timber the on made in especially), 2001, Donovan (management forest .forests temperate products forest wood-Non important most the economically is timber While valued are products other many, product forest One. people local by and markets world on both forest rain of species 000 6 nearly that found study uses economic have Asia Southeast in plants of many, Moreover). 8 Table see; 1991., al et Jansen( of are) NWFPs (products forest wood-non these a providing, people local the to value particular everyday their meet to products of store ready .pleasure aesthetic and food, health for needs local the at valued highly also are species Animal and meat, skins in trade the with, levels global and millions of hundreds for accounting animals live .(2001., al et Reynolds (year per dollars of on depend areas rural in people Although have and income or food of source a as hunting for products wild harvesting sustainably been ,population increasing s’today, years of thousands changing and technology sophisticated more have structures political and economic, social such how over controls traditional most removed problems Serious. harvested are resources to difficult particularly seem hunting concerning ,Moreover. weak is governance where address high and areas forest remote to access greater with wildlife, market international the on prices deal to stretched too are agencies management .overharvesting of incidences increased with sustainable a on provided be to are benefits If at countries to and communities local to basis to required be may controls effective more, large Species group commodity/Product (number( 462 1 trees Timber 135 1 plants Medicinal 520 plants Ornamental 389 nuts and fruits Edible 227 Fibres 170 Rattans 147 plants insecticidal and Poisonous 110 condiments and Spices 790 1 Others 950 5 Total .1991., al et Jansen: Source 8 TABLE Asian Southeast of uses economic Selected plants forest rain tropical
STATE OF THE WORLD'S FORESTs 2003 maintain populations of harvested plants and political or economic turmoil, fire, drought and animals at productive levels. The means to other external factors, this adaptability is essential accomplish this will vary, but they must be built to long-term sustainability. The complexity of on sound economic and ecological principles, and factors affecting forests also calls for multiple often on traditional institutions. Establishing levels(local, national and international)of additional well-managed protected areas may at biological diversity protection, providing the least partly restore the balance between hunter redundancy that ensures that all genes, species and prey that has enabled populations to survive and ecosystems are conserved and thrive in rural areas If the potential benefits of conserving forest biological diversity are to be converted into real Benefits for people and society: a systems and perceived goods and services for society at large, and especially for local people, a systems An essential component of any effort for approach is needed. Its elements would include sustainable forest management is the economic at the national level, an integrated set of viability of the various enterprises involved. While protected areas encompassing various levels of timber extraction is the most obvious money- earner, many other economic activities are national, provincial and local governments, possible. Furthermore, if local people can benefit non-governmental organizations(NGOs), ally from enterprises that depend on the biological diversity of the forest, they might private sector and other stakeholders reasonably be expected to support the (MCNeely, 1999); conservation and sustainable use of forest within the framework of market-based ecosystems. Salafsky et al. (2001)tested this idea extensively across 39 sites in Asia and the Pacific civil society in economic development, through such activities as ecotourism, distilling extending to the management of both essential oils from wild plant roots, producing production forests and protected areas, jams and jellies from forest fruits, collecting other especially for tourism and the sustainable use forest products and sustainably harvesting timber of certain natural resources (Szaro and The study concluded that a community-based Johnston, 1996): enterprise strategy can indeed lead to a large geographical scale(sometimes called a t only under condi bioregion) for resource management depend on external factors, such as market access. programmes, within which protected areas are Moreover, any such enterprise can be sustainable considered components in a varied landsca only if it can adapt to changing circumstances Because many forested areas are subject to grounds, human settlements and infrastructures(Miller, 1996); indigenous people, other local communities, dustry and resource users enterprises that depend on the biological diversity of the for does this seller traditional medicines derived from forest be expected to support the conservation and sustainable use of forest ecosystems
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 92 and plants harvested of populations maintain to means The. levels productive at animals built be must they but, vary will this accomplish and, principles ecological and economic sound on Establishing. institutions traditional on often at may areas protected managed-well additional hunter between balance the restore partly least survive to populations enabled has that prey and .areas rural in thrive and systems a: society and people for Benefits approach for effort any of component essential An economic the is management forest sustainable While. involved enterprises various the of viability are activities economic other many, earnermoney obvious most the is extraction timber benefit can people local if, Furthermore. possible the on depend that enterprises from financially might they, forest the of diversity biological the support to expected be reasonably forest of use sustainable and conservation idea this tested) 2001. (al et Salafsky. ecosystems Pacific the and Asia in sites 39 across extensively distilling, ecotourism as activities such through producing, roots plant wild from oils essential other collecting, fruits forest from jellies and jams .timber harvesting sustainably and products forest based-community a that concluded study The to lead indeed can strategy enterprise that conditions under only but, conservation .access market as such, factors external on depend sustainable be can enterprise such any, Moreover .circumstances changing to adapt can it if only to subject are areas forested many Because and drought, fire, turmoil economic or political essential is adaptability this, factors external other of complexity The. sustainability term-long to multiple for calls also forests affecting factors of) international and national, local (levels the providing, protection diversity biological species, genes all that ensures that redundancy .conserved are ecosystems and forest conserving of benefits potential the If real into converted be to are diversity biological at society for services and goods perceived and systems a, people local for especially and, large :include would elements Its. needed is approach of set integrated an, level national the at• of levels various encompassing areas protected including, administration and management ,governments local and provincial, national ,(NGOs (organizations governmental-non the, people indigenous, communities local stakeholders other and sector private ;(1999, McNeely( based-market of framework the within• by participation greater, systems economic ,development economic in society civil both of management the to extending ,areas protected and forests production use sustainable the and tourism for especially and Szaro (resources natural certain of ;(1996, Johnston a called sometimes (scale geographical large a• management resource for) bioregion are areas protected which within, programmes ,landscape varied a in components considered fishing, forests production, farms including and settlements human, grounds ;(1996, Miller (infrastructures ,landowners private among cooperation• ,communities local other, people indigenous ;users resource and industry from financially benefit people local If biological the on depend that enterprises seller this does as – forest the of diversity and ointments, creams, oils of forest from derived medicines traditional reasonably might they – Brazil in plants conservation the support to expected be COMMUNITY FAO ecosystems forest of use sustainable and FAIDUTTI. R/CFU000635/UNIT FORESTRY
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR 93 the use of economic incentives diversity within a reasonable length of time, arrangements, land exchange and other obtaining the necessary data may require mechanisms to promote conservation of substantial investment in monitoring programmes. In addition, many of the greatest the development of administrative and threats to biological diversity are caused by technical capacities which will encourage local policy measures that may be instituted from a stakeholders. universities, research institutions distance so that the effects are hard to measur and public agencies to harmonize efforts Despite such challenges, several organizations A programme for sustainable forest ive developed criteria and indicators that management that encompasses conservation of generally fit within a pressure-state-respon biological diversity needs to include both firm framework, where pressure is the cause of government action and alliances with biological diversity loss, state is the current stakeholders. Inasmuch as national governments status of biological diversity and response is the cannot delegate their role as guarantors of the set of measures taken to address the pressure conservation of their countries' natural heritage, These criteria and indicators are designed to be authorities need to build the capacity to fulfil applied by resource managers at the forest their regulat nagement duties management unit level, where the responsibility responsibilities. However, civil society can share lies for their implementation. Each indicator certain rights nee management of living natural resources, as long relevant, relating to an explicit objective as the ground is carefully prepared and the rights representative, covering the most important and responsibilities are adequately defined aspects of sustainability: Given the interests of NGOs, industry accurate, correctly reflecting the extent to indigenous people and local communities who ch the objective is met; live within or close to protected areas and other feasible in terms of data availability and forested regions, alliances should be created that collection costs, enable each stakeholder to have a role according credible, analytically sound and replicable to clear government policies and laws using standardized measurements sensitive, showing trends over time; CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR responsive, reflecting changes in conditions CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL and differences among places and groups of DIVERSITY people(Prescott-Allen, 1998) In view of the great variability of natural systems Indicators appropriate for assessing and the lack of any single measure of biological conservation of biological diversity as part of diversity, developing appropriate criteria and sustainable forest management might include indicators to guide management interventions is the area of forest under sustainable a challenging task. This variability also makes it management regimes; mine the percentage of the human population in management measure on biological diversity and around the forest that is involved in Any forest management action is likely to have a sustainable production activities; range of effects on the vario population trends for certain designated biological diversity, benefiting some while species of plant or anima damaging others. In addition, it is often difficult the extent to which fragmentation remains to show a correlation between changes in within the limits of natural variation different components, even in those rare cases in the influence of invasive alien species which changes can be detected within relatively One comprehensive set of criteria and indicators short time frames. Even where it is possible to has been prepared by the Center for International demonstrate specific changes in biological Forestry Research(CIFOR, 1999)
93 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART tax, incentives economic of use the• other and exchange land, arrangements of conservation promote to mechanisms ;diversity biological and administrative of development the• local encourage will which capacities technical institutions research, universities, stakeholders .efforts harmonize to agencies public and forest sustainable for programme A of conservation encompasses that management firm both include to needs diversity biological with alliances and action government governments national as Inasmuch. stakeholders the of guarantors as role their delegate cannot ,heritage natural’ countries their of conservation fulfil to capacity the build to need authorities and duties management and regulatory their share can society civil, However. responsibilities the regarding responsibilities and rights certain long as, resources natural living of management rights the and prepared carefully is ground the as .defined adequately are responsibilities and ,industry, NGOs of interests the Given who communities local and people indigenous other and areas protected to close or within live that created be should alliances, regions forested according role a have to stakeholder each enable .laws and policies government clear to FOR INDICATORS AND CRITERIA BIOLOGICAL OF CONSERVATION DIVERSITY systems natural of variability great the of view In biological of measure single any of lack the and and criteria appropriate developing, diversity is interventions management guide to indicators it makes also variability This. task challenging a any of impact specific the determine to hard .diversity biological on measure management a have to likely is action management forest Any of components various the on effects of range while some benefiting, diversity biological difficult often is it, addition In. others damaging in changes between correlation a show to in cases rare those in even, components different relatively within detected be can changes which to possible is it where Even. frames time short biological in changes specific demonstrate ,time of length reasonable a within diversity require may data necessary the obtaining monitoring in investment substantial greatest the of many, addition In. programmes by caused are diversity biological to threats a from instituted be may that measures policy .measure to hard are effects the that so, distance organizations several, challenges such Despite that indicators and criteria developed have response–state–pressure a within fit generally of cause the is pressure where, framework current the is state, loss diversity biological the is response and diversity biological of status .pressure the address to taken measures of set be to designed are indicators and criteria These forest the at managers resource by applied responsibility the where, level unit management indicator Each. implementation their for lies :be to needs ;objective explicit an to relating, relevant• important most the covering, representative• ;sustainability of aspects to extent the reflecting correctly, accurate• ;met is objective the which and availability data of terms in feasible• ;costs collection replicable and sound analytically, credible• ;measurements standardized using ;time over trends showing, sensitive• conditions in changes reflecting, responsive• of groups and places among differences and .(1998, Allen-Prescott (people assessing for appropriate Indicators of part as diversity biological of conservation :include might management forest sustainable sustainable under forest of area the• ;regimes management in population human the of percentage the• in involved is that forest the around and ;activities production sustainable designated certain for trends population• ;animal or plant of species remains fragmentation which to extent the• ;variation natural of limits the within .species alien invasive of influence the• indicators and criteria of set comprehensive One International for Center the by prepared been has .(1999, CIFOR (Research Forestry
STATE OF THE WORLDS FORESTS 2003 CONCLUSIONS production forests managed under The values that different sectors of society attach sustained-yield principles for timber and to various forest goods and services have changed other forest products; more rapidly and deeply in the past few decades planted forests for intensive production of than ever before. and will continue to do so. The specific commodities, impact of climate change, forest fragmentation inclusion of ecological reserves within and invasive alien species on forest biological commercial forests to protect seed sources, diversity has also increased considerably. These watercourses and critical habitats changes cannot reasonably be expected to slow forest management decisions based on the down-and, indeed, many experts expect them to legitimate needs of local people for access to accelerate The challenges facing forest the range of forest resources upon which their communities, scientists, conservationists and livelihoods depend foresters in the future are therefore likely to be Sustainable forest management requires the very different from those facing them today. development and implementation of sustainable Society needs a range of approaches to forest production systems that are adapted to the management in order to provide multiple benefits different forest ecosystems. These should include to a wide variety of stakeholders with a legitimate scientific, technological, economic, social, financial interest in conserving forest biological diversity and educational components to ensure and using forests sustainably sustainability. The exact combination of goods and Within the context of sustainable forest services to be provided from any particular management and in the face of global change, the forested region should be based on dialogue following measures can help to conserve forest among industry, government, academics, local versit communities and NGOs, thereby bringing protection of large areas of forest, where this is democracy to forests and enhancing the likelihood of sustainability..◆ rebuilding of connectivity between small adjacent protected areas by promoting forestation of the landscape and restoring REFERENCES protection of forest edges against structural damage, damage by fire and colonization by Askins, R.A. 1995. Hostile landscapes and the decline of invasive alien species, by leaving a natural migratory songbirds. Science, 267: 1956-1957. buffer zone of forest that could be managed to Bawa, KS&Seidler,R.1998. Natural forest resemble a natural ecotone(a transitional zone management and conservation of biodiversity in between vegetation types); tropical forests. Conservation Biology, 12(1): 46-5 softening the edges between matrices by CIFOR. 1999. CIFOR criteria and indicators toolbox series diversifying and promoting less intensive Jakarta, Center for International Forestry Research types of land use, managing the use of fire, (CIFOR) minimizing the application of toxic chemicals Chapman, CA, Balcomb, SR, Gillespie, T, Skorupa, and controlling the introduction of plant J. Struhsaker, T.T. 2000. Long-term effects of species from outside the region( Gascon, logging on African primate communities: a 28-year Williamson and da Fonseca, 2000): omparison from Kibale National Park, Uganda allocation of the whole forest landscape to Conservation Biology, 14(1 ): 207-217 specified land uses, including Daily, G.C., Alexander, S, Ehrlich, PR, Goulder, Ly protected areas for conservation, tourism ey, H.A., Postel, S, and non-consumptive uses; Schneider, SH, Tilman, D. woodwell, G M. 1997. protection forests, for example to control Ecosystem services: benefits supplied to human erosion or protect watersheds, societies by natural ecosystems. Issues in Ecology, 2: 1-16
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 94 CONCLUSIONS attach society of sectors different that values The changed have services and goods forest various to decades few past the in deeply and rapidly more The. so do to continue will and, before ever than fragmentation forest, change climate of impact biological forest on species alien invasive and These. considerably increased also has diversity slow to expected be reasonably cannot changes to them expect experts many, indeed, and – down forest facing challenges The. accelerate and conservationists, scientists, communities be to likely therefore are future the in foresters .today them facing those from different very forest to approaches of range a needs Society benefits multiple provide to order in management legitimate a with stakeholders of variety wide a to diversity biological forest conserving in interest .sustainably forests using and forest sustainable of context the Within the, change global of face the in and management forest conserve to help can measures following :diversity biological is this where, forest of areas large of protection• ;possible still small between connectivity of rebuilding• promoting by areas protected adjacent restoring and landscape the of reforestation ;habitats structural against edges forest of protection• by colonization and fire by damage, damage natural a leaving by, species alien invasive to managed be could that forest of zone buffer zone transitional a (ecotone natural a resemble ;(types vegetation between by matrices between edges the softening• intensive less promoting and diversifying ,fire of use the managing, use land of types chemicals toxic of application the minimizing plant of introduction the controlling and ,Gascon (region the outside from species ;(2000, Fonseca da and Williamson to landscape forest whole the of allocation• :including, uses land specified tourism, conservation for areas protected- ;uses consumptive-non and control to example for, forests protection- ;watersheds protect or erosion under managed forests production- and timber for principles yield-sustained ;products forest other of production intensive for forests planted- ;commodities specific within reserves ecological of inclusion• ,sources seed protect to forests commercial ;habitats critical and watercourses the on based decisions management forest• to access for people local of needs legitimate their which upon resources forest of range the .depend livelihoods the requires management forest Sustainable sustainable of implementation and development the to adapted are that systems production include should These. ecosystems forest different financial, social, economic, technological, scientific ensure to components educational and and goods of combination exact The. sustainability particular any from provided be to services dialogue on based be should region forested local, academics, government, industry among bringing thereby, NGOs and communities likelihood the enhancing and forests to democracy ◆ .sustainability of REFERENCES of decline the and landscapes Hostile. 1995. A.R, Askins .1957–1956: 267, Science. songbirds migratory forest Natural. 1998. R, Seidler. & S.K, Bawa in biodiversity of conservation and management .55–46): 1(12, Biology Conservation. forests tropical .series toolbox indicators and criteria CIFOR. 1999. CIFOR Research Forestry International for Center, Jakarta .(CIFOR( ,Skorupa., T, Gillespie., R.S, Balcomb., A.C, Chapman of effects term-Long. 2000. T.T, Struhsaker. & J year-28 a: communities primate African on logging .Uganda, Park National Kibale from comparison .217–207): 1(14, Biology Conservation ,.L, Goulder., R.P, Ehrlich., S, Alexander., C.G, Daily ,.S, Postel., A.H, Mooney., A.P, Matson., J, Lubchenco .1997. M.G, Woodwell. & D, Tilman., H.S, Schneider human to supplied benefits: services Ecosystem .16–1: 2, Ecology in Issues. ecosystems natural by societies
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