STATE OF THE WORLD's FORESTs 2003 Management conservation and sustainable development of forests A s forests are complex ecosystems requiring which the unique role of forests is recognized, balanced and sustainable management, one partnerships between and among countries from of the main challenges today is to reconcile the the north and the South are the basis on which often conflicting priorities of those who depend on Joint Implementation and the Clean Development them for a whole range of goods and services. It is Mechanism are built. also necessary to take into account the ways in which forests affect and are affected by policies ROLE OF PLANTED TREES IN outside the forest sector. Such a comprehensive DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WITH LOW pproach requires innovative partnerships and FOREST COVER: FINDINGS FROM SIX better linkages at all levels and across sectors. CASE STUDIES Indeed, this imperative has never been greater, as Deforestation and forest degradation, coupled demonstrated by the examples in this chapter. with difficult ecological conditions in several parts A summary of six case studies in developing of the world, have seriously reduced forest cover countries with low forest cover shows that in many countries. The situation is exacerbated various government departments, organizations where low rainfall slows regeneration and and other interested parties need to work reforestation and where forest land is subject to together to resolve issues related to planted trees pressures from shifting cultivation,livestock in arid and semi-arid zones, in urban as well as grazing and the uncontrolled gathering of rural areas. In 2002 the International Year of fuelwood In developing countries, natural and Mountains drew attention to the contributions planted forest land is critical to rural that mountain forests make to hundreds of communities, and the loss of forest productivity millions of people, and the forestry community and biological diversity is a serious threat to welcomed a new international alliance for livelihoods and the quality of life. sustainable mountain development. The chapter FAOs Global Forest resources assessment 2000 also highlights integrated management plans for (FRA2000)estimated that 56 countries arelow forests in the Mediterranean basin, which have forest cover countries(LFCCs), having less than 10 long called for the involvement of stakeholders in percent of their area classified as forest(Table 4) their development and implementation. Forest In contrast, the global forest area is almost 30 fire management around the world also requires percent of total land area(FAO, 2001a). LFCCs, collaborative approaches, and international which are found primarily in arid and semi-arid interest in coordinating responses and sharing zones of Africa and the Near East, often reflect personnel and equipment in emergency situations severe ecological degradation that directly affects is growing. Solutions to unsustainable hunting in peoples lives. The LFCCs have a total land area of tropical forests, especially in Africa, are being 2 726 million hectars and a total population of sought through a number of collaborative about 900 million, of which 64 percent lives in arrangements. Lastly, in the context of Asia. Of these 56 countries, only 13 have more international agreements on climate change, in than 0.1 ha of foest per capita.However,low
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 12 ,Management and conservation sustainable forests of development requiring ecosystems complex are forests As one, management sustainable and balanced the reconcile to is today challenges main the of on depend who those of priorities conflicting often is It. services and goods of range whole a for them in ways the account into take to necessary also policies by affected are and affect forests which comprehensive a Such. sector forest the outside and partnerships innovative requires approach .sectors across and levels all at linkages better as, greater been never has imperative this, Indeed .chapter this in examples the by demonstrated developing in studies case six of summary A that shows cover forest low with countries organizations, departments government various work to need parties interested other and trees planted to related issues resolve to together as well as urban in, zones arid-semi and arid in of Year International the, 2002 In. areas rural contributions the to attention drew Mountains of hundreds to make forests mountain that community forestry the and, people of millions for alliance international new a welcomed chapter The. development mountain sustainable for plans management integrated highlights also have which, basin Mediterranean the in forests in stakeholders of involvement the for called long Forest. implementation and development their requires also world the around management fire international and, approaches collaborative sharing and responses coordinating in interest situations emergency in equipment and personnel in hunting unsustainable to Solutions. growing is being are, Africa in especially, forests tropical collaborative of number a through sought of context the in, Lastly. arrangements in, change climate on agreements international ,recognized is forests of role unique the which from countries among and between partnerships which on basis the are South the and North the Development Clean the and Implementation Joint .built are Mechanism IN TREES PLANTED OF ROLE LOW WITH COUNTRIES DEVELOPING SIX FROM FINDINGS: COVER FOREST STUDIES CASE coupled, degradation forest and Deforestation parts several in conditions ecological difficult with cover forest reduced seriously have, world the of exacerbated is situation The. countries many in and regeneration slows rainfall low where to subject is land forest where and reforestation livestock, cultivation shifting from pressures of gathering uncontrolled the and grazing and natural, countries developing In. fuelwood rural to critical is land forest planted productivity forest of loss the and, communities to threat serious a is diversity biological and .life of quality the and livelihoods 2000 Assessment Resources Forest Global s’FAO low are countries 56 that estimated) 2000 FRA( 10 than less having), LFCCs (countries cover forest .(4 Table (forest as classified area their of percent 30 almost is area forest global the, contrast In ,LFCCs). 2001a, FAO (area land total of percent arid-semi and arid in primarily found are which reflect often, East Near the and Africa of zones affects directly that degradation ecological severe of area land total a have LFCCs The. lives s’people of population total a and hectares million 726 2 in lives percent 64 which of, million 900 about more have 13 only, countries 56 these Of. Asia low, However. capita per forest of ha 1.0 than
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR forest cover does not always coincide with watersheds. In addition, their rural populations country borders, so the problem might be more depend on trees for fuel, poles, construction wood widespread. In addition, some countries, such as and a range of non-wood forest products China, have more than 10 percent forest cover yet (NWFPs)such as fodder, food and medicine. In a low area of forest per person. In LFCCs in Africa, Asia and the Near East, producing industrial wood, so it is nearly planted forests account for only a small impossible to fund development of the sector proportion of the forest cover. Algeria, from the sale of wood Bangladesh, Ireland, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Morocco, Pakistan, South Africa and Case studies Uruguay are the only countries with more than In 2002, regional workshops were held in the 500 000 ha of planted feats and trees, whereas Near East (Iran)and Africa(Kenya)to develop half the countries have less than 10 000 ha. Most strategies, action plans and proposals to enhance tree planting programmes were started between the role of planted forests and trees outside 1960 and 1980, although in Denmark, Ethiopia forests in LFCCs In preparation for the and South Africa large-scale efforts began earlier. workshops, visiting FAO teams undertook case The annual new planting rate is substantially studies in six countries in Africa and the Near igher in Asia and the Near East than in Africa, East: Ethiopia, Iran, Mali, Namibia, Oman and but there is considerable variation among Tunisia. The case studies( to be published in countries. Only ten of the developing countries 2003 )focused on countries where problems were plant 10 000 ha or meter year the most serious because of dry climate and low Many LFCCs in the developing world, forest cover. Ethiopia, Iran and Mali are particularly those in arid zones, rely on trees to representative of large countries, Namibia is prevent erosion, halt desertification and protect medium-sized, and Oman and Tunisia are biological diversity, crops, settlements and relatively small. Ethiopia is densely populated, TABLE 4 Estimated planted forest areas and annual planting rates in low forest cover countries, by region Number of Total land area Total forest. forest cover Planted forests Annual planting 000ha ( of total Africa 1407 55985 123 Americas 2726 3.9 10315 b Forest land is defined as having more than 10 percent crown cover and an area of more than 0.5 ha, and excludes land predominantly used for agriculture. Planted forests do not include plantations of less than 0.5 ha in area or less than 20 m in width, and thus some agroforestry plantings and trees outside forests ludes the Near East. Asia and the pacific Source: FAO. 2001 a
13 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART with coincide always not does cover forest more be might problem the so, borders country as such, countries some, addition In. widespread yet cover forest percent 10 than more have, China .person per forest of area low a ,East Near the and Asia, Africa in LFCCs In small a only for account forests planted ,Algeria. cover forest the of proportion of Republic Islamic the, Ireland, Bangladesh and Africa South, Pakistan, Morocco, Iran than more with countries only the are Uruguay whereas, trees and ests for planted of ha 000 500 Most. ha 000 10 than less have countries the half between started were programmes planting tree Ethiopia, Denmark in although, 1980 and 1960 .earlier began efforts scale-large Africa South and substantially is rate planting new annual The ,Africa in than East Near the and Asia in higher among variation considerable is there but countries developing the of ten Only. countries .year per e mor or ha 000 10 plant ,world developing the in LFCCs Many to trees on rely, zones arid in those particularly protect and desertification halt, erosion prevent and settlements, crops, diversity biological populations rural their, addition In. watersheds wood construction, poles, fuel for trees on depend products forest wood-non of range a and In. medicine and food, fodder as such) NWFPs( for potential little is there, countries these nearly is it so, wood industrial producing sector the of development fund to impossible .wood of sale the from studies Case the in held were workshops regional, 2002 In develop to) Kenya (Africa and) Iran (East Near enhance to proposals and plans action, strategies outside trees and forests planted of role the the for preparation In. LFCCs in forests case undertook teams FAO visiting, workshops Near the and Africa in countries six in studies and Oman, Namibia, Mali, Iran, Ethiopia: East in published be to (studies case The. Tunisia were problems where countries on focused) 2003 low and climate dry of because serious most the are Mali and Iran, Ethiopia. cover forest is Namibia, countries large of representative are Tunisia and Oman and, sized-medium ,populated densely is Ethiopia. small relatively planting Annual forestsc Planted cover forest % forestb Total area land Total of Number Region (ha 000) (’ha 000) (’ha million (countries total of) (% ha 000(’ (area forest 85 7.6 739 3 0.4 985 55 407 1 20 Africa 141 8.10 976 4 7.3 067 46 238 1 27 Oceaniad and Asia 53 6.43 656 7.2 503 1 57 5 Americas e.a.n 2.64 944 0.6 470 1 24 4 Europe 8.9 315 10 9.3 025 105 726 2 56 Total a .forest under area land their of percent 10 than less with countries those as defined are countries cover forest Low c. agriculture for used predominantly land excludes and, ha 5.0 than more of area an and cover crown percent 10 than more having as defined is land Forest b forests outside trees and plantings agroforestry some thus and, width in m 20 than less or area in ha 5.0 than less of plantations include not do forests Planted .excluded are d .Pacific the and Asia, East Near the Includes e .available Not .2001a, FAO: Source 4 TABLE regiona by, countries cover forest low in rates planting annual and areas forest planted Estimated
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 very rural and very poor. At the other extreme, major land use. Rural populations rely on forests Oman is largely urban and the people are and woodlands for energy and fodder rather than wealthier. Arid and semi-arid climates dominate, for timber. These resources are also important for although different types of climate do exist poles, craft materials, shade and NWFPs such as within each country. All the countries have fruits and medicine. In addition, they support deserts, and animal herding on rangeland is wildlife, hunting and tourism, and are rich in more common than agriculture Each case study outlined the causes and effects of forest degradation, described lessons and Forest resources assessment data. The lack of proposed strategies and methodologies to reliable data on natural and planted forests, address issues. This section summarizes the main except in Tunisia, poses a significant constraint to findings and observations(Table 5) formulating and implementing national fores policies and plans, and to monitoring and Findings: common features and issues reporting current conditions and trends. Until Environmental degradation. Although not always data are improved analysis of future scenarios well documented, the six countries studied had may not provide a true assessment of the all experienced substantial deforestation, forest potential of planted forests and soil degradation and an increase in the area of bare land over the years. The need f Change in forest cover. Tunisia was the only fuelwood and grazing is the main cause of forest country to increase its forest cover(+0. 2 percent) degradation, frequently leading to loss of forest between 1990 and 2000(FAO, 2001a). The annual cover and biological diversity, erosion, loss in Ethiopia, Mali and Namibia was 0.7 to 0.9 desertification and reduced water resources. The percent, while in Iran and Oman there was no is especially serious in the countries substantial change Except possibly in Tunisia and with large rural populations and high birth rates Iran, natural forests were under serious threat. In (Ethiopia, Mali and Namibia). In all the countries this regard, the studies noted the need to conserve except Oman, the herding of animals on and protect representative samples of natural rangelands that are often partly forested is a ecosystems and unique forest types TAblE 5 Data for the six low forest cover countries studied ountry 二 Planted Population Rural GNP (%) (000ha) (000ha/ per km? population per capita (1997Uss) 1104304593 216 112 Arid to temperate 2284 39 1 581 Continental/arid 1220191318 59 Arid to semi-arid Namibia 823298040 2 196 Arid to semi-arid Oman 2124 Tunisia 16362 5103.1 +0.2 202 60.9 35 2 092 Mediterranean ource: FAO, 2001a and FAO, country case studies(in preparation)
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 14 ,extreme other the At. poor very and rural very are people the and urban largely is Oman ,dominate climates arid-semi and Arid. wealthier exist do climate of types different although have countries the All. country each within is rangeland on herding animal and, deserts .agriculture than common more effects and causes the outlined study case Each and lessons described, degradation forest of to methodologies and strategies proposed main the summarizes section This. issues address .(5 Table (observations and findings issues and features common: Findings always not Although. degradation Environmental had studied countries six the, documented well forest, deforestation substantial experienced all area the in increase an and degradation soil and for need The. years the over land bare of forest of cause main the is grazing and fuelwood forest of loss to leading frequently, degradation ,erosion, diversity biological and cover The. resources water reduced and desertification countries the in serious especially is situation rates birth high and populations rural large with countries the all In). Namibia and Mali, Ethiopia( on animals of herding the, Oman except a is forested partly often are that rangelands Predominant GNP Rural Population Planted forest Annual Forest Total Land Country climate capita per population km2 per forest change cover (%) forest area ($US 1997) (%) (ha 000) (’ha 000) (’ha 000(’ (%) (ha 000(’ temperate to Arid 112 83 1.61 216 8.0 -40 -2.4 593 4 430 110 Ethiopia arid/Continental 581 1 39 2.41 284 2. - s.n 5.4 299 7 201 162 Iran arid-semi to Arid 259 71 0.9 15 7.0 -99 -8.10 186 13 019 122 Mali arid-semi to Arid 196 2 60 1.2 3.0 9.0 -73 -8.9 040 8 329 82 Namibia arid Primarily 500 9 18 6.11 1. - s.n 0 1 246 21 Oman Mediterranean 092 2 35 9.60 202 2.0 +1 +1.3 510 362 16 Tunisia .significant not. = s.n .(preparation in (studies case country, FAO and 2001a, FAO: Source forests on rely populations Rural. use land major than rather fodder and energy for woodlands and for important also are resources These. timber for as such NWFPs and shade, materials craft, poles support they, addition In. medicine and fruits in rich are and, tourism and hunting, wildlife .diversity biological of lack The. data assessment resources Forest ,forests planted and natural on data reliable to constraint significant a poses, Tunisia in except forest national implementing and formulating and monitoring to and, plans and policies Until. trends and conditions current reporting scenarios future of analysis, improved are data the of assessment true a provide not may .forests planted of potential only the was Tunisia. cover forest in Change (percent 2.0 (+ cover forest its increase to country annual The). 2001a, FAO (2000 and 1990 between 9.0 to 7.0 was Namibia and Mali, Ethiopia in loss no was there Oman and Iran in while, percent and Tunisia in possibly Except. change substantial In. threat serious under were forests natural, Iran conserve to need the noted studies the, regard this natural of samples representative protect and .types forest unique and ecosystems 5 TABLE studied countries cover forest low six the for Data
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 15 Millet cultivation tnder Acacia albida in Mali's parkland agroforestry-the trees improve nutrient cycling and fodder, pods and shade for animals Role and extent of planted forests. The areas of planted forests in Ethiopia, Mali, Namibia and Oman are small compared with the size and needs of these countries Both farmers and the public sector plant forests for non- industrial uses, primarily fuelwood and poles, but the survival and productivity of the Between 1986 and 2000, Malis trees are often low. While the current expansion of agrosilvicultural and silvipastoral activities planted forests is about 2 000 and 700 ha per year consisted of the planting of 4 000 km of in Ethiopia and Mali, respectively (RO, 2001a), it shelterbelts, 14 000 ha of woodlots and 5 000 ha does not compensate for the loss of natural around water points and in pastures. Mali is also forests noted for its parkland agroforestry based on In Tunisia, the loss of forest area has largely natural trees, a formation that covers 39 percent stabilized as a result of forest planting, other land of the country. In traditional Sahelian parklands management changes and a decreasing rural millet and sorghum are often grown with Acacia population. The difficulty in distinguishing albida On these infertile soils, production of between planted and natural forests for some rops grown within a 5-to 10-m radius of the native species and the lack of a recent inventory trees has doubled or trebled over that of crops mean that the total area of planted forests is not grown in the open, because of improved nutrient known. However, the annual planting rate is cycling and a changed microclimate. In addition estimated at about 14 000 ha to increasing crop yields, the trees provide Planted forests in Iran cover 2.3 million hectares fuelwood, fodder, pods and shade for animals and are expanding at 63 000 ha per yeaFhey luring the dry season. There are also extensive include a wide variety of indigenous and areas of other parkland systems in Mali where introduced hardwood species. Industrial indigenous trees such as karite( vitellaria purposes account for about 10 percent of the total, paradoxa) produce oil, while Acacia senegal with the remainder used for environmental produces gum arabic. protection, soil stabilization, fuelwood and poles. Namibia has similar parkland systems. In the As a result of the government's promotion of fast- north, where most people live, trees that produce growing industrial planted forests, the area of fruits, oils, nuts, medicinal products or craft poplar plantations is estimated at between 110 000 materials also improve soil fertility or provide and150000ha{O,200a) shade, and are therefore often left standing in agricultural fields. Law and customary practice Role of trees outside forests. Trees outside acknowledge their importance, imposing forests take a variety of forms, with agroforestry, penalties and fines on people who cut them village and urban plantings, roadside plantings down. In addition, shade and fruit trees are and orchards being the most widespread planted around homesteads and farm woodlots
15 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART The. forests planted of extent and Role ,Ethiopia in forests planted of areas small are Oman and Namibia, Mali of needs and size the with compared the and farmers Both. countries these and fuelwood primarily, uses industrialnon for forests plant sector public the of productivity and survival the but, poles of expansion current the While. low often are trees year per ha 700 and 000 2 about is forests planted it), 2001a, FAO (respectively, Mali and Ethiopia in natural of loss the for compensate not does .forests largely has area forest of loss the, Tunisia In land other, planting forest of result a as stabilized rural decreasing a and changes management distinguishing in difficulty The. population some for forests natural and planted between inventory recent a of lack the and species native not is forests planted of area total the that mean is rate planting annual the, However. known .ha 000 14 about at estimated hectares million 3.2 cover Iran in forests Planted They . year per ha 000 63 at expanding are and and indigenous of variety wide a include Industrial. species hardwood introduced ,total the of percent 10 about for account purposes environmental for used remainder the with .poles and fuelwood, stabilization soil, protection of area the, forests planted industrial growingfast of promotion s’government the of result a As 000 110 between at estimated is plantations poplar .(2000a, FAO (ha 000 150 and outside Trees. forests outside trees of Role ,agroforestry with, forms of variety a take forests plantings roadside, plantings urban and village .widespread most the being orchards and s’Mali, 2000 and 1986 Between activities silvipastoral and agrosilvicultural of km 000 4 of planting the of consisted ha 000 5 and woodlots of ha 000 14, shelterbelts also is Mali. pastures in and points water around on based agroforestry parkland its for noted percent 39 covers that formation a, trees natural ,parklands Sahelian traditional In. country the of Acacia with grown often are sorghum and millet of production, soils infertile these On. albida the of radius m-10 to- 5 a within grown crops crops of that over trebled or doubled has trees nutrient improved of because, open the in grown addition In. microclimate changed a and cycling provide trees the, yields crop increasing to animals for shade and pods, fodder, fuelwood extensive also are There. season dry the during where Mali in systems parkland other of areas Vitellaria (karité as such trees indigenous senegal Acacia while, oil produce) paradoxa .arabic gum produces the In. systems parkland similar has Namibia produce that trees, live people most where, north craft or products medicinal, nuts, oils, fruits provide or fertility soil improve also materials in standing left often therefore are and, shade practice customary and Law. fields agricultural imposing, importance their acknowledge them cut who people on fines and penalties are trees fruit and shade, addition In. down woodlots farm and homesteads around planted albida Acacia under cultivation Millet the – agroforestry parkland s’Mali in and cycling nutrient improve trees crop increasing, microclimate alter ,fuelwood providing while production animals for shade and pods, fodder FAIDUTTI. R/15859/FAO
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 and as living fences. The Directorate of Forestry is around Tunis, creating parks, lining boulevards currently promoting tree planting in woodlots. and motorways, planting coastal esplanades and In Tunisia, agroforestry practices include the implementing a national programme for planting of Acacia, Atriplex and Medicago species heritage trees for browse and forage within and beyond forest In Mali, about 22 000 ha of plantations have areas, and the planting of windbreaks, which been established in villages and urban areas were protecting around one-eighth of irrigated since 1986, and there has been additional agricultural land by 2000. Emphasis is also being planting along roadways. Iran has been active placed on planting multipurpose species(such as well, with a network of urban and peri-urban walnut, pistachio, pecan, hazel and carob ), planted forests and parks. Often, however, particularly in mountainous areas and in forest problems arise when irrigation cannot be sustained in the long term because of water urban centres relieves pressure on natural forests cities is therefore seen as an opportunity for Establishing woodlots in villages and near shortages. The use of treated wastewater fror for fuelwood, poles and fodder In cities, tree urban and peri-urban tree planting in several planting is stressed for aesthetic and recreational countries benefits. While urban, peri-urban and roadside planting is promoted in all the countries studied, Combating desertification Combating Tunisia has perhaps been the most active desertification is a major objective for all the Initiatives include establishing a green belt countries, with Iran and Tunisia seeming to make the most progress. Iran has established 140 desertification control stations since 1963. Now after 40 years of concerted effort, it reports that it Planting trees enhances urban environments ntrolled one-fifth of its seriously affecte lands. In Tunisia, 17 200 ha of planted fests were established to fix dunes between 1990 and 1999, with an additional 5 700 ha planted as windbreaks and shelterbelts In the next three decades, rapid urban population growth will become a major issue, possibly affecting more than 50 percent of Institutional capacity and national planting the African and Asian population and 75 to 80 percent of people plans. Problems of poor records and living in Central and South America(FAO, 1999a). This fast expan- underfunded government institutions without sion, often on erosion-prone hillsides or in swampy areas, means clear strategies to address forest issues were that most settlers live in poor conditions and face food insecurity, particularly noticeable in Ethiopia and Oman lack of clean drinking-water, inadequate energy for domestic use, Tunisia, on the other hand, is aiming to plant 70 shortage of construction materials, air pollution and unsanitary million trees annually, and Iran also has a major disposal of waste and sewage planting programme. Namibia, independent only Since the quality of the urban environment is closely linked to since 1990, has developed bold forest policies and the economic and social legislation advocating tree planting and amenity brings several benefits, with beautification stimulating recognizing the role of forests and woodlands outside investment, business development and, hence, employ- Mali has a relatively small planting programme, ment. Using treated sewage water for tree planting also improves preferring to focus on managing natural forests urban environments. Whilewastewater storage anddisposal prob- Centralized decision-making, restricted ems are reduced, the planting protects reservoirs fromerosion and landownership and a lack of research are other Itation, stabilizes hilly or sloping urban areas, provides addi- common issues identified in the countries studied tional green spaces and generates income. Notable improvements In addition, it was noted that several agencies to the environment and human health can thus be achieved sometimes deal with the same problems in an uncoordinated manner, thereby hindering results
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 16 is Forestry of Directorate The. fences living as and .woodlots in planting tree promoting currently the include practices agroforestry, Tunisia In species Medicago and Atriplex, Acacia of planting forest beyond and within forage and browse for which, windbreaks of planting the and, areas irrigated of eighth-one around protecting were being also is Emphasis. 2000 by land agricultural as such (species multipurpose planting on placed ,(carob and hazel, pecan, pistachio, walnut forest in and areas mountainous in particularly .clearings near and villages in woodlots Establishing forests natural on pressure relieves centres urban tree, cities In. fodder and poles, fuelwood for recreational and aesthetic for stressed is planting roadside and urban-peri, urban While. benefits ,studied countries the all in promoted is planting .active most the been perhaps has Tunisia belt green a establishing include Initiatives boulevards lining, parks creating, Tunis around and esplanades coastal planting, motorways and for programme national a implementing .trees heritage have plantations of ha 000 22 about, Mali In areas urban and villages in established been additional been has there and, 1986 since as active been has Iran. roadways along planting urban-peri and urban of network a with, well ,however, Often. parks and forests planted be cannot irrigation when arise problems water of because term long the in sustained from wastewater treated of use The. shortages for opportunity an as seen therefore is cities several in planting tree urban-peri and urban .countries Combating. desertification Combating the all for objective major a is desertification make to seeming Tunisia and Iran with, countries 140 established has Iran. progress most the ,Now. 1963 since stations control desertification it that reports it, effort concerted of years 40 after affected seriously its of fifth-one controlled has ests for planted of ha 200 17, Tunisia In. lands and 1990 between dunes fix to established were as planted ha 700 5 additional an with, 1999 .shelterbelts and windbreaks planting national and capacity Institutional and records poor of Problems. plans without institutions government underfunded were issues forest address to strategies clear .Oman and Ethiopia in noticeable particularly 70 plant to aiming is, hand other the on, Tunisia major a has also Iran and, annually trees million only independent, Namibia. programme planting and policies forest bold developed has, 1990 since and planting tree advocating legislation .woodlands and forests of role the recognizing ,programme planting small relatively a has Mali .forests natural managing on focus to preferring restricted, making-decision Centralized other are research of lack a and landownership .studied countries the in identified issues common agencies several that noted was it, addition In an in problems same the with deal sometimes .results hindering thereby, manner uncoordinated will growth population urban rapid, decades three next the In of percent 50 than more affecting possibly, issue major a become people of percent 80 to 75 and population Asian and African the means, areas swampy in or hillsides prone-erosion on often, sionexpan fast This). 1999a, FAO (America South and Central in living ,insecurity food face and conditions poor in live settlers most that ,use domestic for energy inadequate, water-drinking clean of lack unsanitary and pollution air, materials construction of shortage .sewage and waste of disposal to linked closely is environment urban the of quality the Since for planting tree, cities of regeneration social and economic the stimulating beautification with, benefits several brings amenity improves also planting tree for water sewage treated Using. mentemploy, hence, and development business, investment outside and erosion from reservoirs protects planting the, reduced are lemsprob disposal and storage wastewater While. environments urban improvements Notable. income generates and spaces green tionaladdi provides, areas urban sloping or hilly stabilizes, siltation .achieved be thus can health human and environment the to environments urban enhances trees Planting
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 17 Ssons Programmes to plant trees, The following observations are based on the case efforts to reduce the impoverishment of studies forests, can stabilize and reverse deforestation The loss and degradation of forests and and degradation in arid climates. Two of the woodlands and sub sequent soil erosion and six countries studied, Tunisia and Iran desertification are largely the result of human illustrate this point well. activities, aggravated by arid and semi-arid Large government planting programmes can conditions and compounded by the many be successful, but this approach alone will not rural and poor people who depend on scarce necessarily assist the rural poor or solve the natural resources, have large animal herds problem of overgrazing in forests or and use fuelwood in an unmanaged way rangelands. In this Water scarcity and unpredictable droughts practices and community planting add to the problem. programmes, coupled with improved animal Strong government policies, strategies and and crop management, are very important. institutions are required, in addition to a In addition to participatory approaches decentralized approach, and need to be families and communities need to have secure supported by competent and knowledgeable land tenure and to benefit from planting trees Farmers will seldom plant trees for fuelwood Intersectoral and interdisciplinary approaches alone, as there are usually other immediate are needed to address problems of forest loss energy alternatives. They are far more likely and environmental degradation that are not to be interested if they know that they will solely forestry driven but result from such also draw benefits in the form of food fodder factors as demographic changes, competing shelter shade or income. land uses(e. g grazing and agriculture), lack In arid and semi-arid environments, planting of alternative income. food trees can be difficult and costly. Labour levels of education shortage can also be a constraint, since the Participatory processes, emphasizing the planting period usually coincides with that in needs of local people and traditional the agricultural sector. Tunisia and Iran have knowledge, are essential. shown that land can be rehabilitated by Planting new forest resources or regenerating planting trees, but planted trees currentl and sustainably managing natural forests and have a minor role in the other countries woodlands will reduce pressure for fodder studied and fuel, as well as possibly providing or versifying household income and improving the environment. Planting trees on farms(agroforestry)and other activities outside forests offer employment opportunities and immediate benefits to smallholders and the rural poor for subsistence, provide refuges for wildlife, improve the local climate and enhance In Tunisia, forest perse
17 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART Lessons case the on based are observations following The .studies and forests of degradation and loss The• and erosion soil subsequent and woodlands human of result the largely are desertification arid-semi and arid by aggravated, activities many the by compounded and conditions scarce on depend who people poor and rural herds animal large have, resources natural .way unmanaged an in fuelwood use and droughts unpredictable and scarcity Water .problem the to add and strategies, policies government Strong• a to addition in, required are institutions be to need and, approach decentralized knowledgeable and competent by supported .personnel approaches interdisciplinary and Intersectoral• loss forest of problems address to needed are not are that degradation environmental and such from result but driven forestry solely competing, changes demographic as factors lack), agriculture and grazing. g.e (uses land low and insecurity food, income alternative of .education of levels the emphasizing, processes Participatory• traditional and people local of needs .essential are, knowledge regenerating or resources forest new Planting• and forests natural managing sustainably and fodder for pressure reduce will woodlands or providing possibly as well as, fuel and and income household diversifying .environment the improving and) agroforestry (farms on trees Planting• offer forests outside activities other immediate and opportunities employment for poor rural the and smallholders to benefits ,wildlife for refuges provide, subsistence enhance and climate local the improve .landscapes with coupled, trees plant to Programmes• of impoverishment the reduce to efforts deforestation reverse and stabilize can, forests the of Two. climates arid in degradation and ,Iran and Tunisia, studied countries six .well point this illustrate can programmes planting government Large• not will alone approach this but, successful be the solve or poor rural the assist necessarily or forests in overgrazing of problem agroforestry, regard this In. rangelands planting community and practices animal improved with coupled, programmes .important very are, management crop and ,approaches participatory to addition In• secure have to need communities and families .trees planting from benefit to and tenure land fuelwood for trees plant seldom will Farmers immediate other usually are there as, alone likely more far are They. alternatives energy will they that know they if interested be to ,fodder, food of form the in benefits draw also .income or shade, shelter planting, environments arid-semi and arid In• Labour. costly and difficult be can trees the since, constraint a be also can shortage in that with coincides usually period planting have Iran and Tunisia. sector agricultural the by rehabilitated be can land that shown currently trees planted but, trees planting countries other the in role minor a have .studied the at planting forest, Tunisia In year per ha 000 14 about of rate reverse and stabilize helped has degradation and deforestation ISAAC. J/13985/FAO
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 The way forward of the solution, as are the regeneration and The following suggestions, among others, management of natural forests may help to improve the contribution of trees With regard to providing rural people with an to the environment and to sustainable alternative income, approaches include large- ivelihoods in developing countries with low scale planted forests for industrial purposes, commercial orchards, small-scale projects for Integrated and holistic approaches must be NWFPs and tourism implemented in order to reduce pressure Most lccs need better information on the forest and range resources. The planting of status of their resources so that they can trees,whether as forests or tree clusters, is part monitor change and develop integrated Urban forest watershed management: an example of partnership TreePeople, a non-profit organization based in Los Angeles, building codes require all runoff tobe directed to storm drains, more United States, demonstrates the benefits of partnerships in pro- than 85 percent of the city s rainfall has become a toxic and danger- viding cities with sustainable water supplies. The following is ous flood threat. Todeal with this, various agencies plannedseparate Tree Peoples account of a successful project to help Los Angeles construction projects which would have totalled more than US$20 meet half of its water needs through urban watershed manage. billion but did not, taken together, offer sustainable solutions ment, while at the same time improving the quality of life. The project builds on ten years of research, design, cost-benefit analy-APARTNERSHIP APPROACH sis,demonstration projects and multistakeholder processes In 1992, TreePeopleproposed using watershed management prac tices to resolve these problems, but the proposal was rejected as FLAWS IN TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE too expensive for the single purpose of flood control To co SYSTEMS the fact that relevant agencies did not have the tools or Most cities were not designed, organized or managed as part of the ity to take into account such additional benefits as water supply, aturalecosystem. Watersupply, wastewater, solid waste and storm pollution prevention, energy conservation and economic devel- water infrastructure systems are managed by separate government opment, Tree People assembledamulti-agency partnershipin 1994, agencies that typically do not coordinate operations. As cities consisting of the United States Forest Service, the Los Angeles xpand, these systems often grow further apart, compete for scarce Department of Water and Power, the Los Angeles Stormwater funds and unwittingly undermine each other s efforts as they Management Division, the United States Environmental Protec- struggle individually to cope with increased flooding, polluted tion Agency, the Metropolitan Water District, the City of Santa storm water runoff and water shortages. As the problems and costs Monica and the Los Angeles County Flood Control District. The accrue, solutions become increasinglyelusive resources project, known as the Trans-agency Resources for Environmental are available to meet other social needs. Thr grated ap- and Economic Sustainability (TREES), designed best management proaches based on the urban forest watershed, cities can achieve practices to overhaul and manage the citys use of watersheds, environmental, economic and social sustainability Angeles is seeking technical and economically feasible solu- created a cost-benefit modelling tool and conducted a cost-benefit tions for the range of problems associated with urban infrastructure analysis, and then applied the results more broadly management. An average annual rainfall of 15 inches (381 mm) ovides the city with up to half the water it needs for the year. RESULTS OF AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH However, because nearly three-quarters of its area has been re The information and demonstrations of the TREES Project resulted dered impermeable by sprawl (buildings, parking lots, paving)and in substantial changes in Los Angeles public works agencies and
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 18 forward way The ,others among, suggestions following The trees of contribution the improve to help may sustainable to and environment the to low with countries developing in livelihoods .cover forest be must approaches holistic and Integrated• on pressure reduce to order in implemented of planting The. resources range and forest part is, clusters tree or forests as whether, trees and regeneration the are as, solution the of .forests natural of management an with people rural providing to regard With• ,purposes industrial for forests planted scalelarge include approaches, income alternative for projects scale-small, orchards commercial .tourism and NWFPs the on information better need LFCCs Most• can they that so resources their of status integrated develop and change monitor ,Angeles Los in based organization profit-non a, TreePeople is following The. supplies water sustainable with cities vidingpro in partnerships of benefits the demonstrates, States United Angeles Los help to project successful a of account s’TreePeople The. life of quality the improving time same the at while, mentmanage watershed urban through needs water its of half meet .processes multistakeholder and projects demonstration, sisanaly benefit-cost, design, research of years ten on builds project INFRASTRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT TRADITIONAL IN FLAWS SYSTEMS the of part as managed or organized, designed not were cities Most storm and waste solid, wastewater, supply Water. ecosystem natural government separate by managed are systems infrastructure water cities As. operations coordinate not do typically that agencies scarce for compete, apart further grow often systems these, expand they as efforts s’other each undermine unwittingly and funds polluted, flooding increased with cope to individually struggle costs and problems the As. shortages water and runoff water storm resources fewer and elusive increasingly become solutions, accrue achieve can cities, watershed forest urban the on based proachesap integrated Through. needs social other meet to available are .sustainability social and economic, environmental infrastructure urban with associated problems of range the for tionssolu feasible economically and technical seeking is Angeles Los (mm 381 (inches 15 of rainfall annual average An. management .year the for needs it water the half to up with city the provides and) paving, lots parking, buildings (sprawl by impermeable deredren been has area its of quarters-three nearly because, However more, drains storm to directed be to runoff all require codes building separate planned agencies various, this with deal To. threat flood ousdanger and toxic a become has rainfall s’city the of percent 85 than 20$US than more totalled have would which projects construction .solutions sustainable offer, together taken, not did but billion APPROACH PARTNERSHIP A as rejected was proposal the but, problems these resolve to ticesprac management watershed using proposed TreePeople, 1992 In counter To. control flood of purpose single the for expensive too ,supply water as benefits additional such account into take to ityauthor the or tools the have not did agencies relevant that fact the ,1994 in partnership agency-multi a assembled TreePeople, opmentdevel economic and conservation energy, prevention pollution Angeles Los the, Service Forest States United the of consisting Stormwater Angeles Los the, Power and Water of Department Santa of City the, District Water Metropolitan the, Agency tionProtec Environmental States United the, Division Management The. District Control Flood County Angeles Los the and Monica Environmental for Resources agency-Trans the as known, project management best designed), TREES (Sustainability Economic and ,watersheds of use s’city the manage and overhaul to practices ,projects pilot through designs the of viability technical the tested benefit-cost a conducted and tool modelling benefit-cost a created .broadly more results the applied then and, analysis APPROACH INNOVATIVE AN OF RESULTS resulted Project TREES the of demonstrations and information The and agencies works public Angeles Los in changes substantial in partnership of example an: management watershed forest Urban
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 19 management policies and plans. Tunisia has Agroforestry Centre(ICRAF)and the Center made the most progress in this regard, and its for International Forestry Research(CIFOR) approach could be used as a model for others should also be tapped. Countries with similar problems need to share .An alternative to using scarce irrigation water, experiences and adapt approaches to local especially in urban and peri-urban planting conditions. Both Tunisia and Iran offer insights programmes, is to utilize treated wastewater here, as do Australia. South Africa and the om cities. FAO (2001b)is a good source of United States. The expertise of international information for arid countries, drawing from agencies such as FAO, the United Nations its own experience and that of current projects Environment Programme(UNEP), the World in Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait and Yemen. l policies. By 2000, the Los Angeles County Flood Control eration include capturing, cleaning and infiltrating storm water in cy had changed its name to the Watershed Management such locations as park yards, commercial parking areas Division, reflecting its changed mission. The City of Los Angeles and, potentially, the lawns of individual homes followed suit a year later, transforming its Stormwater Manage- Successful implementation of the Sun Valley watershed scheme ment Division into the watershed Protection Division requires an extensive multi-agency partnership to design, fund, The TREES Project was awarded a contract to remodel a 1 100- manage and monitor the project. It also requires a new spirit of ha8 000-household urban subwatershed of the Los Angeles River. collaboration among government, individuals, families, businesse After a lengthy feasibility study, the Los Angeles County Watershed andcommunity organizations. Recognizing this, Los Angeles County Management Division is developing the management plan, envi- is committed to the stakeholder planning process and is conducting ronmental impact documents and large pilot projects for the Sun an unprecedented community education andoutreach programme valley watershed. Engineers originally planned to build a US$42 Further information on TreePeople and its projects can be found millionstormdraintocombatoneofthecountyslargestandmostontheiNternet:www.treepeople.org intractable flooding problems. Instead, the new urban forest wa- tershed may cost as much as US$100 million, but can produce in excess of US$400 million in benefits, including nearly US$180 million in conserved water, 370 new jobs, energy savings, cleaner air and"green"schools. Best management practices under consi The greening of the paved near Los Angeles, California
19 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART has Tunisia. plans and policies management its and, regard this in progress most the made .others for model a as used be could approach share to need problems similar with Countries• local to approaches adapt and experiences insights offer Iran and Tunisia Both. conditions the and Africa South, Australia do as, here international of expertise The. States United Nations United the, FAO as such agencies World the), UNEP (Programme Environment Center the and) ICRAF (Centre Agroforestry (CIFOR (Research Forestry International for .tapped be also should ,water irrigation scarce using to alternative An• planting urban-peri and urban in especially wastewater treated utilize to is, programmes of source good a is) 2001b (FAO. cities from from drawing, countries arid for information projects current of that and experience own its .Yemen and Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt in Control Flood County Angeles Los the, 2000 By. policies local Management Watershed the to name its changed had Agency Angeles Los of City The. mission changed its reflecting, Division .Division Protection Watershed the into Division mentManage Stormwater its transforming, later year a suit followed -100 1 a remodel to contract a awarded was Project TREES The .River Angeles Los the of subwatershed urban household-000 8 ha Watershed County Angeles Los the, study feasibility lengthy a After Sun the for projects pilot large and documents impact ronmentalenvi, plan management the developing is Division Management 42$US a build to planned originally Engineers. watershed Valley most and largest s’county the of one combat to drain storm million in produce can but, million 100$US as much as cost may tershedwa forest urban new the, Instead. problems flooding intractable 180$US nearly including, benefits in million 400$US of excess cleaner, savings energy, jobs new 370, water conserved in million in water storm infiltrating and cleaning, capturing include erationconsid under practices management Best. schools” green “and air areas parking commercial, schoolyards, parks as locations such .homes individual of lawns the, potentially, and scheme watershed Valley Sun the of implementation Successful ,fund, design to partnership agency-multi extensive an requires of spirit new a requires also It. project the monitor and manage businesses, families, individuals, government among collaboration County Angeles Los, this Recognizing. organizations community and conducting is and process planning stakeholder the to committed is .programme outreach and education community unprecedented an found be can projects its and TreePeople on information Further .org.treepeople.www: Internet the on TREEPEOPLE paved the of greening The school elementary an of grounds California, Angeles Los near
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 A meeting of LFCCs in Tehran in 1999(FAO, MOUNTAIN FORESTS AND 2000b)emphasized the need for concerted action, SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN government commitment and collaboration among DEVELOPMENT countries with similar problems. The declaration establishing the Tehran Process calls for increased forests are mountain forests(FAO, 2001a)(see investment from within the region, the donor Table 6), and their importance for sustainable community and intermational agencies. It also mountain development is increasingly suggests that non-governmental organizations ecognized. Indeed, mountain issues are GOs), the private sector, research and training receiving more attention than ever as a result of institutions and the rural poor could have a positive the observance of the International Year of role, especially at the local level. The Tehran Process Mountains in 2002. has much potential to make a real difference in the As part of highly complex ecosystems, future, particularly if efforts are geared to national including watersheds, mountain forests capture forest planning, forest management and planting and store rainfall and moisture, maintain water programmes aimed at increasing forest cover and quality, regulate river flow, reduce erosion and meeting the needs of rural people protect against landslides, avalanches, falling International Year of Mountains: building partner In 1998, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2002 Atthe World Summiton Sustainable Development in 2002 the International Year of Mountains and invited FAo to be the the government of Switzerland on behalf of several coun- lead agency in preparing and coordinating activities to: tries, UNEP and FAo. launched the International Partnershi increase awareness of and knowledge about mountain for Sustainable Development in Mountain Regions. Its objec- tives are to promote and strengthen cooperation among do- courage conservation and sustainable development of nors, implementing agencies, NGOs, the private sector, moun tain communities and others. Operating on the basis of promote and defend theculturalheritage of com- common goals, commitments and priorities, the partnership addresses such issues as poverty, conservation of find solutions to the conflicts that frequently arise in moun- diversity, food security and key institutional concerns. FAO has been active in the partnership since its inception, and also organized a satellite meeting during the 2002 World Food Summit: five years later conference, at which participants fe mally declared their support. Further information on the International Year of mountains and the partnership can be found on the Internet at The Himalayas in Nepal
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 20 ,FAO (1999 in Tehran in LFCCs of meeting A ,action concerted for need the emphasized) 2000b among collaboration and commitment government declaration The. problems similar with countries increased for calls Process Tehran the establishing donor the, region the within from investment also It. agencies international and community organizations governmental-non that suggests training and research, sector private the), NGOs( positive a have could poor rural the and institutions Process Tehran The. level local the at especially, role the in difference real a make to potential much has national to geared are efforts if particularly, future planting and management forest, planning forest and cover forest increasing at aimed programmes .people rural of needs the meeting AND FORESTS MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT closed s’world the of percent eight-Twenty see) (2001a, FAO (forests mountain are forests sustainable for importance their and), 6 Table increasingly is development mountain are issues mountain, Indeed. recognized of result a as ever than attention more receiving of Year International the of observance the .2002 in Mountains ,ecosystems complex highly of part As capture forests mountain, watersheds including water maintain, moisture and rainfall store and and erosion reduce, flow river regulate, quality falling, avalanches, landslides against protect 2002 declared Assembly General Nations United the, 1998 In the be to FAO invited and Mountains of Year International the :to activities coordinating and preparing in agency lead mountain about knowledge and of awareness increase• ;ecosystems of development sustainable and conservation encourage• ;resources mountain ;munitiescom mountain of heritage cultural the defend and promote• .areas tainmoun in arise frequently that conflicts the to solutions find• ,2002 in Development Sustainable on Summit World the At Partnership International the launched, FAO and UNEP, triescoun several of behalf on, Switzerland of Government the of basis the on Operating. others and communities tainmoun, sector private the, NGOs, agencies implementing, norsdo among cooperation strengthen and promote to are tivesobjec Its. Regions Mountain in Development Sustainable for partnership the, priorities and commitments, goals common biological of conservation, poverty as issues such addresses FAO. concerns institutional key and security food, diversity also and, inception its since partnership the in active been has Food World 2002 the during meeting satellite a organized .support their declared mallyfor participants which at, conference later years five: Summit Mountains of Year International the on information Further at Internet the on found be can partnership the and .org.mountains2002.www HOFER. T/0279-FO/DEPARTMENT FORESTRY FAO Nepal in Himalayas The partnerships building: Mountains of Year International
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR Table 6 Mountain forest types by area and by dominant region Main regions Tropical and subtropical moist mountain forests Tropical Andes, Central America, East Africa and Temperate and boreal evergreen conifer mountain forests North am ope, Central Asia, Himalaya Temperate and boreal deciduous conifer mountain forests 1317 Central Asia, Northeast Asia Temperate and boreal broad-leaved and mixed mountain forests 2247 North America, southern Andes, Europe, Himalaya, East Asia Tota 9097 Source: UNEP-WCMC. 2000. rocks and floods. They often have higher are underexploited today because fuelwood has biological diversity and endemism than adjacent been replaced by other sources of energy and lowland forests, although the value of this ha because they are not economically viable to not yet been fully understood. On the other harvest. As a result, the vitality of these forests is hand. mountain forests are sensitive to reduced and their protective function impaired fluctuations in climate, which could influence- In many developing countries, the opposite holds both positively and negatively-their capacity to true: forests are overexploited because of high continue providing important services to demand for fuelwood and agricultural land, mountain inhabitants and hundreds of millions unsustainable forest practices and the excessive of people living downstream. Hence there is a ranting of timber concessions need to improve understanding of possible Mountain forests need to be managed as an climate changes so that planning for the tegral part of mountain ecosystems, and the potential impact can begin. involvement of local communities is essential In mountain communities, forests are often There are a number of examples, particularly in part of multiple land-use systems as pastures mountainous parts of Europe, where community and sources of organic material for agriculture. forestry has been practised for centuries, creating In many mountain areas, particularly in ployment and generating income. Today, source for local inhabitants as well as for people successfully in the mountain areas of ma o developing countries, wood is the main fuel community forestry is also being implemente in nearby settlements in the foothills and plains. developing countries Mountain forests also provide NWFPs and As a major event of the International Year of recreational facilities, and add to the scen Mountains. the fourth International beauty of landscapes, national parks and Consultation on mountain Forests was held in protected areas. In many regions, they also Navarra, Spain, in June 2002. One of its main enshrine sacred groves and trees, and are thus that the fate of culturally important often depends on government policies and In many industrialized countries, mountain incentives in other sectors, such as agriculture, forests consist of overmature planted species that energy and trade. For example, mountain forests
21 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART higher have often They. floods and rocks adjacent than endemism and diversity biological has this of value the although, forests lowland other the On. understood fully been yet not to sensitive are forests mountain, hand – influence could which, climate in fluctuations to capacity their – negatively and positively both to services important providing continue millions of hundreds and inhabitants mountain a is there Hence. downstream living people of possible of understanding improve to need the for planning that so changes climate .begin can impact potential often are forests, communities mountain In pastures as systems use-land multiple of part .agriculture for material organic of sources and in particularly, areas mountain many In fuel main the is wood, countries developing people for as well as inhabitants local for source .plains and foothills the in settlements nearby in and NWFPs provide also forests Mountain scenic the to add and, facilities recreational and parks national, landscapes of beauty also they, regions many In. areas protected thus are and, trees and groves sacred enshrine .important culturally mountain, countries industrialized many In that species planted overmature of consist forests has fuelwood because today underexploited are and energy of sources other by replaced been to viable economically not are they because is forests these of vitality the, result a As. harvest .impaired function protective their and reduced holds opposite the, countries developing many In high of because overexploited are forests: true ,land agricultural and fuelwood for demand excessive the and practices forest unsustainable .concessions timber of granting an as managed be to need forests Mountain the and, ecosystems mountain of part integral .essential is communities local of involvement in particularly, examples of number a are There community where, Europe of parts mountainous creating, centuries for practised been has forestry ,Today. income generating and employment implemented being also is forestry community many of areas mountain the in successfully .countries developing of Year International the of event major a As International Fourth the, Mountains in held was Forests Mountain on Consultation main its of One. 2002 June in, Spain, Navarra forests mountain of fate the that was conclusions and policies government on depends often ,agriculture as such, sectors other in incentives forests mountain, example For. trade and energy regions Main area Total types forest Mountain (%) (km2 000(’ and Africa East, America Central, Andes Tropical 25 237 2 forests mountain moist subtropical and Tropical Asia Southeast, Madagascar India, Africa Southern 6 534 forests mountain dry subtropical and Tropical Himalaya, Asia Central, Europe, America North 30 762 2 forests mountain conifer evergreen boreal and Temperate Asia Northeast, Asia Central 14 317 1 forests mountain conifer deciduous boreal and Temperate ,Europe, Andes southern, America North 25 247 2 forests mountain mixed and leaved-broad boreal and Temperate Asia East, Himalaya 100 097 9 Total .2000, WCMC-UNEP: Source 6 TABLE region dominant by and area by types forest Mountain