Introduction- Grammatical Hierarchy Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of English is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower unit. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes
Introduction-Grammatical Hierarchy • Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of English is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower unit. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes
1. Morphemes(词素 The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories; free morphemes(自由词素) and bound morphemes(粘附 词素) Free morphemes: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. I see examples on Page 21 Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional(曲折变化的)or derivational(派生的)aix. Isee examples on Pages2-3] Allomorphs(词素变体): the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological(语音的) or orthographical(拼写的) forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.[see examples on Page 3
1. Morphemes(词素) • The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附 词素). • Free morphemes: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. [see examples on Page 2] • Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional(曲折变化的) or derivational(派生的) affix. [see examples on Pages 2-3] • Allomorphs(词素变体): the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological(语音的) or orthographical(拼写的) forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called “allomorphs”.[see examples on Page 3]
2 words The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified In two ways 1)Classified in terms of word-formation In terms of word-formation, words can be divided into simple words(na #f in) derivatives派生词) and compounds(复合词).[ see examples on Pages3-6] 2)Classified in terms of grammatical function In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups closed words((封闭词类) and open- class words(开放词类) Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items areclosed" or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members, such as prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, main verbs(主动词) There is another class existing between the two, which includes cardinal numeral ordinal numeral, interjection, etc
2. words • The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways: • 1) Classified in terms of word-formation • In terms of word-formation, words can be divided into simple words(简单词), derivatives(派生词) and compounds(复合词). [see examples on Pages 3-6] • 2) Classified in terms of grammatical function • In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups: closed words(封闭词类)and open-class words(开放词类). • Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed” or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members, such as prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc. • Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, main verbs(主动词). • There is another class existing between the two, which includes cardinal numeral, ordinal numeral, interjection, etc
Phrases The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head(tt ia ) The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized 1)The noun phrase The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is (determiner +)(premodifier + noun(+postmodifier) see examples on Page 7 the tall boy sitting in the corner °2) The verb phrase The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or modifier+main verb She looks pale ° We utterly detested him A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary(or auxiliaries)(+modifier) She ought to have told him about it In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or nonfinite. A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to tense or subject. A nonfinite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a nonfinite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to tense or subject. [see examples on Pages 7-8 w We went there to see a film
Phrases • The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head(中心词). The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized. • 1) The noun phrase • The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (premodifier +) noun(+postmodifier) [see examples on Page 7] • the tall boy sitting in the corner • 2) The verb Phrase • The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier+main verb”. • She looks pale. • We utterly detested him. • A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary(or auxiliaries)(+modifier). • She ought to have told him about it. • In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or nonfinite. A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to tense or subject. A nonfinite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a nonfinite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to tense or subject. [see examples on Pages 7-8] • We went there to see a film
3)The adjective phrase The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head The general pattern of an adjective phrase is (modifier+) adjective(+postmodifier/complementation) You are not careful enough 4)The adverb phrase The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is (modifier+)adverb(+postmodifier) He speaks very clearly indeed 5)The prepositional phrase The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is (modifier+) preposition complementation They followed close behind me
• 3) The adjective phrase • The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is: (modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation) • You are not careful enough. • 4) The adverb phrase • The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is: (modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier) • He speaks very clearly indeed. • 5) The prepositional phrase • The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier+) preposition + complementation • They followed close behind me
Clauses The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged(Hek) clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of subject+ predicate 1) Independent and dependent clause独立分句和从属分句 In terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance as distinguished from dependent clause that forms only part of another clause or of a phrase He knows everything about it I don t think he knows everything aboutit 2) Simple and complex clauses简单分句和复杂分句 When a clause consists of only one construction of subject predicate, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence It is not true:(独立简单分句) What you saidis not true(独立复杂分句) He said that itwas not true.(从属简单分句) He complained that what you said was not true、(从属复杂分句)
Clauses • The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged(完整的) clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”. • 1) Independent and dependent clause独立分句和从属分句 • In terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from dependent clause that forms only part of another clause or of a phrase. • He knows everything about it. • I don’t think he knows everything about it. • 2) Simple and complex clauses简单分句和复杂分句 • When a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence. • It is not true.(独立简单分句) • What you said is not true.(独立复杂分句) • He said that it was not true.(从属简单分句) • He complained that what you said was not true.(从属复杂分句)
3) Main and subordinate clauses主句和从句 In a complex clause the clause that takes another clause as its element the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause 4) Finite and nonfinite clauses限定分句和非限定分句 a clause can be finite or nonfinite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a nonfinite clause is a clause with a nonfinite verb phrase as its predicator I dont remember which of/ your answers were correct(限定分句) I signed the paper to get the license:(非限定分句 5)Ⅴ erbless clauses When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb elem it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of ent, subject predicate without any form of verb element Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned
• 3) Main and subordinate clauses主句和从句 • In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. • 4) Finite and nonfinite clauses限定分句和非限定分句 • A clause can be finite or nonfinite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a nonfinite clause is a clause with a nonfinite verb phrase as its predicator. • I don’t remember which of your answers were correct.(限定分句) • I signed the paper to get the license.(非限定分句) • 5) Verbless clauses • When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element. • Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned
Sentence The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause. the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse, it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus. a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function 1) Full and minor sentences完全句和不完全句 A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informational discourse When did he arrive Last night No smoking Help
Sentence • The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. • 1) Full and minor sentences 完全句和不完全句 • A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. • A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informational discourses. • -----When did he arrive? -----Last night. • No smoking! • Help!
2)Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences 简单句、并列句、复杂句和并列复杂句 A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent ause The students have made better grades in the past few weeks The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s), this makes a complex sentence Miss Linda came to the party, but Mr: And Mrs Wood did not Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one comple clause make a compound-complex sentence They watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldnt see the program because our television was broken
• 2) Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences • 简单句、并列句、复杂句和并列复杂句 • A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. • The students have made better grades in the past few weeks. • The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks. • Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. • The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard. • When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s), this makes a complex sentence. • Miss Linda came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs. Wood did not. • Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. • They watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldn’t see the program because our television was broken
Homework 预习第1讲(1527页 预习第27讲(467487页)
Homework • 预习第1讲（15—27页） • 预习第27讲（467—487页）