Lecture 22: Subordination 3 I Definition a Subordination means putting a grammatical unit in a lower rank or position. a grammatical unit that functions as a constituent of another unit of equal or lower rank of structure is called a subordinate construction, which might be a finite clause. a non -finite clause. a verbless clause. or a phrase 2 Coordination and subordination Coordination and subordination are two devices for combining and relating ideas. These are commonly used to connect clauses or sentences in order to establish various semantic relationships Generally speaking, coordination establishes a relationship between ideas of approximately equal importance while subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other
Lecture 22: Subordination ◼ 1 Definition ◼ Subordination means putting a grammatical unit in a lower rank or position. A grammatical unit that functions as a constituent of another unit of equal or lower rank of structure is called a subordinate construction, which might be a finite clause, a non-finite clause, a verbless clause, or a phrase. ◼ 2 Coordination and Subordination ◼ Coordination and subordination are two devices for combining and relating ideas. These are commonly used to connect clauses or sentences in order to establish various semantic relationships. Generally speaking, coordination establishes a relationship between ideas of approximately equal importance, while subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other
Ways of subordinating minor ideas It is a general practice to put the main idea in the main clause and the minor in a dependent clause There are various ways of subordinating minor ideas, which may be expressed by a finite or non-finite clause or by a verbless clause. e eg a As they were curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity a Being curious about their new neighbours, the johnsons Curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons a If the speaker wants to further minimize the importance of the minor idea, he can even put it in a phrase, chiefly a prepositional phrase eg With curiosity, the johnsons went and visited their new neighbours at the first opportunity
◼ 1) Ways of subordinating minor ideas ◼ It is a general practice to put the main idea in the main clause and the minor in a dependent clause. There are various ways of subordinating minor ideas, which may be expressed by a finite or non-finite clause or by a verbless clause, eg: ◼ As they were curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity. ◼ Being curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons… ◼ Curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons… ◼ If the speaker wants to further minimize the importance of the minor idea, he can even put it in a phrase, chiefly a prepositional phrase, eg: ◼ With curiosity, the Johnsons went and visited their new neighbours at the first opportunity
2)Subordinators a Subordinate clauses are generally introduced by subordinators which. in terms of word formation can be classified into simple subordinators, complex subordinators correlative subordinators and marginal subordinators a 3 Subordinate Clauses(finite) a Structurally, subordinate clauses may be finite, non-finite or verbless a finite subordinate clause is one whose predicator is a finite verb phrase. Syntactically, subordinate clauses can be subdivided into nominal relative. and adverbial clauses
◼ 2) Subordinators ◼ Subordinate clauses are generally introduced by subordinators, which, in terms of word formation, can be classified into simple subordinators, complex subordinators, correlative subordinators and marginal subordinators. ◼ 3 Subordinate Clauses(finite) ◼ Structurally, subordinate clauses may be finite, non-finite, or verbless. A finite subordinate clause is one whose predicator is a finite verb phrase. Syntactically, subordinate clauses can be subdivided into nominal, relative, and adverbial clauses
4 Infinitive clauses An infinitive clause is a"subject predicate construction with an infinitive as predicator a 1) Types of infinitive clauses Infinitive clauses fall into three types those without an expressed subject. those with an expressed subject and those introduced by a wh-word or subordinator (D)Infinitive clause without expressed subject I hope to be able to come To be frank, you need a great deal of courage (2)Infinitive clause with expressed subject The best thing would be for you to tell everybody He knew that with him to help she could and would succeed. a Rather than you do the job, I prefer to finish it myself
◼ 4 Infinitive clauses ◼ An infinitive clause is a “subject + predicate” construction with an infinitive as predicator. ◼ 1) Types of infinitive clauses ◼ Infinitive clauses fall into three types: those without an expressed subject, those with an expressed subject, and those introduced by a wh-word or subordinator. ◼ (1) Infinitive clause without expressed subject ◼ I hope to be able to come. ◼ To be frank, you need a great deal of courage. ◼ (2) Infinitive clause with expressed subject ◼ The best thing would be for you to tell everybody. ◼ He knew that with him to help, she could and would succeed. ◼ Rather than you do the job, I prefer to finish it myself
(3)Infinitive clause introduced by wh-word or subordinator I don t know what to do/how to do/where to go He opened his lips as if to say something 2) Syntactic functions of infinitive clauses Infinitive clauses can function as adverbial of purpose, result, and cause (1)As an adverbial of purpose, the infinitive is usually with to. She stood up to be seen better. He moved aside for her to be seen better. (2) To denote result, we normally use the simple form of to- infinitive, eg In 1935 he left home never to return He got to the station only to be told that the train had left His work was so good as to make him well-known in the ci His indifference was such as to make us all despair. It was cold enough to freeze our fingers This coffee is too hot ffor us) to drink
◼ (3) Infinitive clause introduced by wh-word or subordinator ◼ I don’t know what to do/how to do/where to go. ◼ He opened his lips as if to say something. ◼ 2) Syntactic functions of infinitive clauses ◼ Infinitive clauses can function as adverbial of purpose, result, and cause. ◼ (1) As an adverbial of purpose, the infinitive is usually with to. ◼ She stood up to be seen better. ◼ He moved aside for her to be seen better. ◼ (2) To denote result, we normally use the simple form of toinfinitive, eg: ◼ In 1935 he left home never to return. ◼ He got to the station only to be told that the train had left. ◼ His work was so good as to make him well-known in the city. ◼ His indifference was such as to make us all despair. ◼ It was cold enough to freeze our fingers. ◼ This coffee is too hot (for us) to drink
a (3)As an adverbial of cause, infinitive clauses generally collocate with adjectives or verbs denoting emotion or fortune. eg I am delighted to know that you have got a job a She wept to see him in such a terrible state a 5-ing Participle clauses An-ing participle clause is a"subject predicate? construction with an -Ing participle as predicator 1)Types of -ing participle clauses ing participle clauses may be with an expressed subject, some with a subordinator and some with neither a subject nor a subordinator a (1)-ing participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator he denied having been there Ihe ave a triend living in london beating a child will do more harm than good
◼ (3) As an adverbial of cause, infinitive clauses generally collocate with adjectives or verbs denoting emotion or fortune, eg: ◼ I am delighted to know that you have got a job. ◼ She wept to see him in such a terrible state. ◼ 5 –ing Participle Clauses ◼ An –ing participle clause is a “subject + predicate” construction with an –ing participle as predicator. ◼ 1) Types of –ing participle clauses ◼ -ing participle clauses may be with an expressed subject, some with a subordinator, and some with neither a subject nor a subordinator. ◼ (1) –ing participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator ◼ He denied having been there. ◼ I have a friend living in London. ◼ Beating a child will do more harm than good
Attitudinal -ing participle clauses have become set expressions whose logical subject may be identified as the speaker, himself or people in general,eg Judging from what you say, he has done his best Generally speaking, this book is not very dificult (2)-ing participle clause with subordinator When sleeping I never hear a thing (3)-ing participle clause with expressed subject Do you mind my making a suggestion? (object) My parents object to my going out alone It is no use your pretending to be deaf. (subject) The last bus having gone, we had to walk home. (absolute construction
◼ Attitudinal –ing participle clauses have become set expressions, whose logical subject may be identified as the speaker, himself or people in general, eg: ◼ Judging from what you say, he has done his best. ◼ Generally speaking, this book is not very difficult. ◼ (2) –ing participle clause with subordinator ◼ When sleeping, I never hear a thing. ◼ (3) –ing participle clause with expressed subject ◼ Do you mind my making a suggestion?(object) ◼ My parents object to my going out alone. ◼ It is no use your pretending to be deaf. (subject) ◼ The last bus having gone, we had to walk home. (absolute construction)
2) Syntactic functions of -ing participle clauses a (1)-ing participle clauses can be used as subject, object, and subject/object complement a I like getting up in the morning This is a box for holding chessmen I noticed an old man crossing the road. a (2)As adverbials, -ing participle clauses can be used in various senses Climbing to the top the tower, we saw a magnificent view. Being a hard-working young man, he was praised by his teachers You will make yourself more tired keeping on your feet Knowing all this, he still insisted on my paying for the damage It rained heavily, causing severe flooding in that area a The old man was asleep, holding a book in his hand
◼ 2) Syntactic functions of –ing participle clauses ◼ (1) –ing participle clauses can be used as subject, object, and subject/object complement. ◼ I like getting up in the morning. ◼ This is a box for holding chessmen. ◼ I noticed an old man crossing the road. ◼ (2) As adverbials, -ing participle clauses can be used in various senses. ◼ Climbing to the top the tower, we saw a magnificent view. ◼ Being a hard-working young man, he was praised by his teachers. ◼ You will make yourself more tired keeping on your feet. ◼ Knowing all this, he still insisted on my paying for the damage. ◼ It rained heavily, causing severe flooding in that area. ◼ The old man was asleep, holding a book in his hand
6-ed Participle Clauses An -ed participle clause is a"subject predicate construction with an -ed participle as predicator DTypes of -ed participle clauses a There are three types of -ed participle clause: some are without an expressed subject or a subordinator, some with a subordinator. and some with an expressed subject 1(1)-ed participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator a Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room
◼ 6 –ed Participle Clauses ◼ An –ed participle clause is a “subject + predicate” construction with an –ed participle as predicator. ◼ 1) Types of –ed participle clauses ◼ There are three types of –ed participle clause: some are without an expressed subject or a subordinator, some with a subordinator, and some with an expressed subject. ◼ (1) –ed participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator ◼ Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room
(2)-ed participle clause with subordinator Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir. (3)-ed participle clause with expressed subject The job finished, we went home straight away With the tree grown tall, we will get more shade 2) Syntactic functions of -ed participle clauses (1)a postmodifying -ed participle clause corresponds to an elliptical relative clause. The elements ellipted are usually the subject relative pronoun and the operator The men, who were)soaked with sweat from an all-night march, immediatelywent into action (2 )As an adverbial, -ed participle clauses can denote time, cause, condition, concession as well as accompanying circumstances Heated, the metal expands Deeply moved, he thanked heragain and again United, we stand; divided, we fall Left to his own devices, Charles did not relax his efforts a He went to beijing that winter, disguised as a merchant
◼ (2) –ed participle clause with subordinator ◼ Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir. ◼ (3) –ed participle clause with expressed subject ◼ The job finished, we went home straight away. ◼ With the tree grown tall, we will get more shade. ◼ 2) Syntactic functions of –ed participle clauses ◼ (1) A postmodifying –ed participle clause corresponds to an elliptical relative clause. The elements ellipted are usually the subject relative pronoun and the operator. ◼ The men, (who were) soaked with sweat from an all-night march, immediately went into action. ◼ (2) As an adverbial, -ed participle clauses can denote time, cause, condition, concession as well as accompanying circumstances. ◼ Heated, the metal expands. ◼ Deeply moved, he thanked her again and again. ◼ United, we stand; divided, we fall. ◼ Left to his own devices, Charles did not relax his efforts. ◼ He went to Beijing that winter, disguised as a merchant