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THREE ASPECTS OF HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM JOSEPH SCHWARTZ THAT Nathaniel Hawthorne had been charged with being a Puritan either emotionally, imaginatively, or dogmati- cally is a commonplace in Hawthorne scholarship. It began when James Russell Lowell called him a "Puritan Tieck," and when Herman Melville, his sometime friend, seeing more deeply into his own personality than into Hawthorne's, found his appeal in "blackness, ten times more black ... that Cal- vinistic sense of Innate Depravity and Original Sin, from whose visitations, in some shape or other, no deeply think- ing mind is always and wholly free." But this judgment was repudiated even then by the members of Hawthorne's family and by his intimate friends. Sophia, his wife, Julian, his son, James T. Fields, his publisher, and Horatio Bridge, his closest friend, did much to dispel the cloud of gloom that the label "Puritan" was soon to affix to his works. Henry Bright, a British friend, called him "the least morbid of men," and his judgment was echoed by Elizabeth Peabody, Hawthorne's sister-in-law. In the first major critical study made of Haw- thorne's work (1879), Henry James made a special effort to dis- tinguish between Hawthorne's pronounced consciousness of sin and Puritanism. The notebooks, James contended, testify to his "serenity and amenity of mind." James was specifically answering M. Emile Montegut who, writing in the Revue des Deux Mondes, had called Hawthorne "Un Romancier Pessi- miste." James felt that there was nothing to show that Haw- thorne held bitter or morbid views. "The development of Hawthorne's mind was not toward sadness." The results of pessimism-"the note of depression, of despair, of the disposi- tion to undervalue the human race"-cannot be found in the character of Hawthorne's mind and imagination.' Despite the fact that James's Hawthorne is regarded by many as one of the 1 Henry James, Hawthorne (Ithaca, New York, 1956), 21-22. 192 This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 193 best critical studies ever made of an American writer,the issue of Hawthorne's Puritanism was not completely settled to the satisfaction of post-Jamesian scholars. The great interest in Hawthorne in the twentieth century led to frequent and distinguished reappraisals of his work,in- cluding,of course,new evaluations of his Puritanism."Puri- tanism"had become by now a convenient tag to apply to any writer who has either a deep consciousness of sin or a belief in original sin,which in turn has become confused with a belief in innate depravity,a position which varies greatly from the general tradition of Christian belief.It is largely because of this false identification and because of a misreading of Haw- thorne's own challenge to unqualified optimism,that such a twentieth-century critic as Harry Levin sees,as Melville did, the overwhelming power of blackness in Hawthorne.Alexan- der Cowie agrees in part:"A modified predestination he also found a convenient basis for explaining man's apparent ina- bility to cope successfully with regeneration in this world." Certainly such a strange phrase as"modified predestination" would seem to need some explanation.It is,on the face of things,a philosophic impossibility.In another study,Austin Warren tells us that Hawthorne appears to have been "in imaginative sympathy"with the"great Calvinistic doctrine of predestination."Mark Van Doren tends to agree with Mr. Warren.Yet,Carl Van Doren would have us reject this idea: "He had little Puritanism left in him.Dealing with many of its problems,he reached his own verdicts.His humane moral- ism looked at old prejudices with new eyes."Randall Stewart feels that he accepted some form of belief in depravity and pre- destination.Arlin Turner would agree with this.But Yvor Winters says simply that Hawthorne turned"his back upon the excessively simplified conceptions of his Puritan ances- tors."So the critical war goes on.2 2 These opinions are found in Harry Levin,The Power of Blackness (New York,1958),10,26;Alexander Cowie,The Rise of the American Novel (New York,1948).356;Austin Warren,Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York,1934),xxi; Mark Van Doren,The Best of Hawthorne (New York,1941),11;Carl Van Doren.What Is American Literature?in The Viking Portable Van Doren (New This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 193 best critical studies ever made of an American writer, the issue of Hawthorne's Puritanism was not completely settled to the satisfaction of post-Jamesian scholars. The great interest in Hawthorne in the twentieth century led to frequent and distinguished reappraisals of his work, in- cluding, of course, new evaluations of his Puritanism. "Puri- tanism" had become by now a convenient tag to apply to any writer who has either a deep consciousness of sin or a belief in original sin, which in turn has become confused with a belief in innate depravity, a position which varies greatly from the general tradition of Christian belief. It is largely because of this false identification and because of a misreading of Haw- thorne's own challenge to unqualified optimism, that such a twentieth-century critic as Harry Levin sees, as Melville did, the overwhelming power of blackness in Hawthorne. Alexan- der Cowie agrees in part: "A modified predestination he also found a convenient basis for explaining man's apparent ina- bility to cope successfully with regeneration in this world." Certainly such a strange phrase as "modified predestination" would seem to need some explanation. It is, on the face of things, a philosophic impossibility. In another study, Austin Warren tells us that Hawthorne appears to have been "in imaginative sympathy" with the "great Calvinistic doctrine of predestination." Mark Van Doren tends to agree with Mr. Warren. Yet, Carl Van Doren would have us reject this idea: "He had little Puritanism left in him. Dealing with many of its problems, he reached his own verdicts. His humane moral- ism looked at old prejudices with new eyes." Randall Stewart feels that he accepted some form of belief in depravity and pre- destination. Arlin Turner would agree with this. But Yvor Winters says simply that Hawthorne turned "his back upon the excessively simplified conceptions of his Puritan ances- tors." So the critical war goes on.2 2 These opinions are found in Harry Levin, The Power of Blackness (New York, 1958), 10, 26; Alexander Cowie, The Rise of the American Novel (New York, 1948), 356; Austin Warren, Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York, 1934), xxi; Mark Van Doren, The Best of Hawthorne (New York, 1941), 11; Carl Van Doren, What Is American Literature? in The Viking Portable Van Doren (New This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

194 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY There are understandable reasons for this disagreement over such an important idea.In stories that appear side by side, Hawthorne apparently seems to condemn and admire Puri- tanism.But if we are to believe that he is not completely con- tradictory,there must be a reason for his peculiar ambivalence. Some order can be made out of what is only an apparent con- tradiction,if we remember that Hawthorne's differing atti- tudes toward Puritanism refer specifically to different facets of this one large concept.Puritanism was not a theology alone. Although it became the American branch of Calvinism,it also gave its name to a characteristic way of life.And,for Haw- thorne,Puritanism was also associated with the American struggle for political liberty.Thus,his comments on Puritan- ism cannot be adequately treated unless we understand that his discussion is manifestly limited to three specific areas:(1) Puritanism as a theology of predestination and universal de- pravity;(2)Puritanism as a way of life;(3)Puritanism as it was involved in the early struggle for political liberty in Amer- ica. Hawthorne's nonfictional attitude toward Puritanism in general can be indicated simply,if not thoroughly,because there are only a few instances of his discussion of it.He tells us of a conversation he had with G.P.R.James,the novelist, concerning the Puritans,"about whom we agreed pretty well in our opinions."James later wrote him a note asking him to come to a haymaking,admonishing him to leave his"grim old Puritans''at home.In another instance,he recorded that it was difficult to write a lively and entertaining book for chil- dren when he had such unmalleable material as the somber, stern,and rigid Puritans with which to work.+It is not too York,1945).5g0;Randall Stewart,Nathaniel Hawthorne:A Biography (New Haven,1948),244ff.;Arlin Turner,"Hawthorne and Reform,"NEw ENGLAND QUARTERLY,XV,708(1942):and Yvor Winters,In Defense of Reason (New York, 1947),174. 3 The American Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne,edited by Randall Stewart (New Haven,1932).232-233. 4 The Complete Writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne,The Old Manse Edition, edited by H.E.Scudder(Boston,1goo)xn,xxiv.Subsequent references to Haw- This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

194 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY There are understandable reasons for this disagreement over such an important idea. In stories that appear side by side, Hawthorne apparently seems to condemn and admire Puri- tanism. But if we are to believe that he is not completely con- tradictory, there must be a reason for his peculiar ambivalence. Some order can be made out of what is only an apparent con- tradiction, if we remember that Hawthorne's differing atti- tudes toward Puritanism refer specifically to different facets of this one large concept. Puritanism was not a theology alone. Although it became the American branch of Calvinism, it also gave its name to a characteristic way of life. And, for Haw- thorne, Puritanism was also associated with the American struggle for political liberty. Thus, his comments on Puritan- ism cannot be adequately treated unless we understand that his discussion is manifestly limited to three specific areas: (1) Puritanism as a theology of predestination and universal de- pravity; (2) Puritanism as a way of life; (3) Puritanism as it was involved in the early struggle for political liberty in Amer- ica. Hawthorne's nonfictional attitude toward Puritanism in general can be indicated simply, if not thoroughly, because there are only a few instances of his discussion of it. He tells us of a conversation he had with G. P. R. James, the novelist, concerning the Puritans, "about whom we agreed pretty well in our opinions." 3 James later wrote him a note asking him to come to a haymaking, admonishing him to leave his "grim old Puritans" at home. In another instance, he recorded that it was difficult to write a lively and entertaining book for chil- dren when he had such unmalleable material as the somber, stern, and rigid Puritans with which to work.4 It is not too York, 1945), 590; Randall Stewart, Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Biography (New Haven, 1948), 244ff.; Arlin Turner, "Hawthorne and Reform," NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY, XV, 708 (1942); and Yvor Winters, In Defense of Reason (New York, 1947), 174. 3 The American Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Randall Stewart (New Haven, 1932), 232-233. 4 The Complete Writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Old Manse Edition, edited by H. E. Scudder (Boston, igoo) xii, xxiv. Subsequent references to HawThis content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 195 fruitful,however,to pursue a study of his generalizations.It is better to look at the various facets of Puritanism which we can discover from a close reading of his works. It is not a simple matter to piece together Hawthorne's at- titude toward Puritanism as a theology of predestination and personal depravity.He was no formal critic of religion nor a practiced theologian.Despite some very direct statements,it is chiefly by implication that we can discover his critical posi- tion concerning these matters.His attitude toward the Puri- tan religion is further complicated by his universally rec- ognized rejection of Unitarianism,the "new"religion,op- posed to the"old"orthodoxy,as seen in one of his best satires, "The Celestial Railroad."Because the cold scorn with which he treats Unitarianism in this story is unmistakable,some of his commentators have been led to assert that he chose the old while opposing the new.That he rejected both has not often been recognized as a possibility,despite that fact that he called Calvinism a"lump of lead"and Unitarianism "a feather"in the same passage.Neither"variety of the black-coated tribe" captured his allegiance.(IV,24-26.)It still remains a crucial matter to demonstrate that he found neither solace nor com- fort in the religion of his ancestors. Hawthorne always felt that the religious system of Puritan- ism was hard,cold,and confined;it was only the fervent faith of firm believers that redeemed it all.He seems to praise the attitude of the individual believer,but not the system of be- lief.We see this illustrated in"Main Street"in his analysis of the Puritan meetinghouse."A meaner temple,"he writes, "was never consecrated to the worship of the Deity."As long as their individual faith was strong,"as long as their lamps were kindled at the heavenly flame,"they were able to give a radiance to the place.But even in the time of the first genera- tion,and certainly in their children's time,"these lamps be- gan to burn more dimly."Then it could be seen clearly "how thorne's writings will be to this edition and will be indicated by volume and page numbers inserted parenthetically in the text. This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 195 fruitful, however, to pursue a study of his generalizations. It is better to look at the various facets of Puritanism which we can discover from a close reading of his works. It is not a simple matter to piece together Hawthorne's at- titude toward Puritanism as a theology of predestination and personal depravity. He was no formal critic of religion nor a practiced theologian. Despite some very direct statements, it is chiefly by implication that we can discover his critical posi- tion concerning these matters. His attitude toward the Puri- tan religion is further complicated by his universally rec- ognized rejection of Unitarianism, the "new" religion, op- posed to the "old" orthodoxy, as seen in one of his best satires, "The Celestial Railroad." Because the cold scorn with which he treats Unitarianism in this story is unmistakable, some of his commentators have been led to assert that he chose the old while opposing the new. That he rejected both has not often been recognized as a possibility, despite that fact that he called Calvinism a "lump of lead" and Unitarianism "a feather" in the same passage. Neither "variety of the black-coated tribe" captured his allegiance. (Iv, 24-26.) It still remains a crucial matter to demonstrate that he found neither solace nor com- fort in the religion of his ancestors. Hawthorne always felt that the religious system of Puritan- ism was hard, cold, and confined; it was only the fervent faith of firm believers that redeemed it all. He seems to praise the attitude of the individual believer, but not the system of be- lief. We see this illustrated in "Main Street" in his analysis of the Puritan meetinghouse. "A meaner temple," he writes, "was never consecrated to the worship of the Deity." As long as their individual faith was strong, "as long as their lamps were kindled at the heavenly flame," they were able to give a radiance to the place. But even in the time of the first genera- tion, and certainly in their children's time, "these lamps be- gan to burn more dimly." Then it could be seen clearly "how thorne's writings will be to this edition and will be indicated by volume and page numbers inserted parenthetically in the text. This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

196 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY hard,cold,and confined was their system,-how like an iron cage was that which they called Liberty."(m,75-76.)The ob- vious use of symbol here points up Hawthorne's disapproval of the idea which the material object represents.That he ap- proved of sincere faith or belief is apparent,but his approval of this specific form of religion is another matter.He did make some comments about the principal theological tenets of the Puritan which can help us to discover his attitude. Hawthorne knew enough of their theology to have Gover- nor Bellingham mention depravity as an essential tenet of the Puritan religion in The Scarlet Letter.When the eminent townsmen are deciding whether or not to take Pearl away from Hester,Bellingham is abashed by Pearl's liberal and elfin responses to his attempt to discover how well she knows the accepted religion."This is awful!"he cries,because a child of three cannot tell him who made her."Without ques- tion,she is equally in the dark as to her soul,its present de- pravity,and future destiny!"(vI,159-160.)It cannot be merely an artistic accident that in this scene,when the pompous Bellingham parades the universal depravity of the soul before her,Hester Prynne is given a chance to contradict him.She seems not to be depraved,but has a clear choice between good and evil:follow Mistress Hibbens into the forest and meet "the Black Man,"or choose a life of service for the good of Pearl.She chooses the good,even though she indicates that she might have freely gone to the Devil if she had lost Pearl. It is in this same novel that Hawthorne gives evidence of his knowledge of another important tenet of Puritan theology. Chillingworth,"a fiend,"becomes the spokesman for the Puri- tan doctrine of necessity which flows from the concept of pre- destination.He tries to silence Hester's arguments for allow- ing the Minister a second chance.It is not granted to me to pardon,he tells her."My old faith,long forgotten,comes back to me,and explains all that we do and suffer."Since the first step awry,"it has all been a dark necessity."(vI,250.)It can- not be argued that Hawthorne approves of this doctrine be- cause of Chillingworth's statement of it.In fact,the contrary This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

196 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY hard, cold, and confined was their system,-how like an iron cage was that which they called Liberty." (iii, 75-76.) The ob- vious use of symbol here points up Hawthorne's disapproval of the idea which the material object represents. That he ap- proved of sincere faith or belief is apparent, but his approval of this specific form of religion is another matter. He did make some comments about the principal theological tenets of the Puritan which can help us to discover his attitude. Hawthorne knew enough of their theology to have Gover- nor Bellingham mention depravity as an essential tenet of the Puritan religion in The Scarlet Letter. When the eminent townsmen are deciding whether or not to take Pearl away from Hester, Bellingham is abashed by Pearl's liberal and elfin responses to his attempt to discover how well she knows the accepted religion. "This is awful!" he cries, because a child of three cannot tell him who made her. "Without ques- tion, she is equally in the dark as to her soul, its present de- pravity, and future destiny!" (vi, 159-160.) It cannot be merely an artistic accident that in this scene, when the pompous Bellingham parades the universal depravity of the soul before her, Hester Prynne is given a chance to contradict him. She seems not to be depraved, but has a clear choice between good and evil: follow Mistress Hibbens into the forest and meet "the Black Man," or choose a life of service for the good of Pearl. She chooses the good, even though she indicates that she might have freely gone to the Devil if she had lost Pearl. It is in this same novel that Hawthorne gives evidence of his knowledge of another important tenet of Puritan theology. Chillingworth, "a fiend," becomes the spokesman for the Puri- tan doctrine of necessity which flows from the concept of pre- destination. He tries to silence Hester's arguments for allow- ing the Minister a second chance. It is not granted to me to pardon, he tells her. "My old faith, long forgotten, comes back to me, and explains all that we do and suffer." Since the first step awry, "it has all been a dark necessity." (vi, 250.) It can- not be argued that Hawthorne approves of this doctrine be- cause of Chillingworth's statement of it. In fact, the contrary This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 197 seems to be true.Chillingworth is the villain of the piece,a man who has turned himself into a fiend,a man whom the others in the novel see as evil.He uses the apology of his old faith to escape personal responsibility for his sin,a sin which at another time he freely admits as his own. The positive side of predestination-arbitrary and exclusive election-was just as inimical to Hawthorne's delicate sense of men's equality.In a character study,"The Man of Adamant," that ranks in power with "Ethan Brand,"he satirizes intoler- ance and the exclusiveness of those who feel that they alone are the elect.This attitude,which made the "saved one"shrink from the contamination of mankind,was directly opposed to Hawthorne's sense of universal brotherhood.Richard Digby, the man of adamant,thought that he had the only key to sal- vation;that,indeed,it was folly for men to trust to their own strength or to any other belief.Digby was a member of that stern brotherhood (mentioned in "Main Street")that fled England for America;but he was the most intolerant of his fellows.Imagining that he was the only one who could be saved,he soon fled to the forest where he lived alone.His the- ology,granted the orientation of Puritanism,was carefully logical though not very humane.He rejects friendship,kind- ness,and love because of his insane self-righteousness and the certainty of his predestined election.Hawthorne compares his notion of salvation,appropriately,to a plank in a tempes- tuous sea which Digby bestrode triumphantly,hurling anath- emas against the rest of the wretches of mankind who were struggling in the sea of death.The plank is so narrow that he takes special care to keep it out of the reach of others.So pleased that Providence had entrusted him alone with this treasure,"Richard Digby determined to seclude himself to the sole and constant enjoyment of his happy fortune."He finally turns into a man of stone,a symbol "repelling the whole race of mortals,-not from heaven,-but from the horrible loneli- ness of his dark,cold sepulchre."(In,226 and 238.)The whole legend can be taken as a satire on any mortal or group of mor- tals who would exclude the rest of the human race in much This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 197 seems to be true. Chillingworth is the villain of the piece, a man who has turned himself into a fiend, a man whom the others in the novel see as evil. He uses the apology of his old faith to escape personal responsibility for his sin, a sin which at another time he freely admits as his own. The positive side of predestination-arbitrary and exclusive election-was just as inimical to Hawthorne's delicate sense of men's equality. In a character study, "The Man of Adamant," that ranks in power with "Ethan Brand," he satirizes intoler- ance and the exclusiveness of those who feel that they alone are the elect. This attitude, which made the "saved one" shrink from the contamination of mankind, was directly opposed to Hawthorne's sense of universal brotherhood. Richard Digby, the man of adamant, thought that he had the only key to sal- vation; that, indeed, it was folly for men to trust to their own strength or to any other belief. Digby was a member of that stern brotherhood (mentioned in "Main Street") that fled England for America; but he was the most intolerant of his fellows. Imagining that he was the only one who could be saved, he soon fled to the forest where he lived alone. His the- ology, granted the orientation of Puritanism, was carefully logical though not very humane. He rejects friendship, kind- ness, and love because of his insane self-righteousness and the certainty of his predestined election. Hawthorne compares his notion of salvation, appropriately, to a plank in a tempes- tuous sea which Digby bestrode triumphantly, hurling anath- emas against the rest of the wretches of mankind who were struggling in the sea of death. The plank is so narrow that he takes special care to keep it out of the reach of others. So pleased that Providence had entrusted him alone with this treasure, "Richard Digby determined to seclude himself to the sole and constant enjoyment of his happy fortune." He finally turns into a man of stone, a symbol "repelling the whole race of mortals,-not from heaven,-but from the horrible loneli- ness of his dark, cold sepulchre." (Iii, 226 and 238.) The whole legend can be taken as a satire on any mortal or group of mor- tals who would exclude the rest of the human race in much This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

198 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY the same way that predestination arbitrarily elected those to be saved and damned the rest.This is a manifestation in re- ligion of the sin which Hawthorne hated most,the sin of pride. Richard Digby was proud of his election,of his possession of an exclusive religious idea;Lady Eleanor's mantle is a sym- bol of social pride or social exclusiveness;and Ethan Brand becomes a symbol of intellectual pride.Any manifestation of this kind of pride is inevitably destructive. Certain aspects of Richard Digby's state of mind are often referred to as a "holier than thou''attitude.Hawthorne makes special reference to this state of mind in"The Gentle Boy." The author's concern is not with one person as a symbol(as in the case of Digby)but with the whole community of Puritans and the atmosphere which they generate.When the Pearsons adopt Ilbrahim,the gentle Quaker boy,because he is alone in the world,their Christian motivation makes no impression on the rest of the community.The overtones of the New Testa- ment in conflict with the Old in the story cannot be missed. The people avoid contact with little Ilbrahim because they fear contamination.As the chosen,the elect,they do not un- derstand the gospel of love.The mild-featured maidens as well as the stern old men draw away from him lest the sanctu- ary be polluted by his presence.He is a symbol of"a sweet infant of the skies"who strayed from home,but "all the in- habitants of this miserable world closed their impure hearts against him,drew back their earth-soiled garments from his touch,and said,'we are holier than thou.'"(I,100.)The whole tale is an indictment of harsh,stern,and self-righteous Puri- tanism,but this one aspect of Puritan exclusiveness is singled out for special attack.In one of the most moving scenes in his short fiction,Hawthorne uses the Puritan children as opera- tive symbols of the sharp cruelty which results from bigoted and fanatic exclusiveness.Ilbrahim made friends with another boy,whose fall from a tree had confined him for his period of recovery to the Pearsons'home.When partially recovered,the invalid completes his convalescence at his own home.Ilbrahim has no other friends and cannot resist trying to join a group of This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

198 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY the same way that predestination arbitrarily elected those to be saved and damned the rest. This is a manifestation in re- ligion of the sin which Hawthorne hated most, the sin of pride. Richard Digby was proud of his election, of his possession of an exclusive religious idea; Lady Eleanor's mantle is a sym- bol of social pride or social exclusiveness; and Ethan Brand becomes a symbol of intellectual pride. Any manifestation of this kind of pride is inevitably destructive. Certain aspects of Richard Digby's state of mind are often referred to as a "holier than thou" attitude. Hawthorne makes special reference to this state of mind in "The Gentle Boy." The author's concern is not with one person as a symbol (as in the case of Digby) but with the whole community of Puritans and the atmosphere which they generate. When the Pearsons adopt Ilbrahim, the gentle Quaker boy, because he is alone in the world, their Christian motivation makes no impression on the rest of the community. The overtones of the New Testa- ment in conflict with the Old in the story cannot be missed. The people avoid contact with little Ilbrahim because they fear contamination. As the chosen, the elect, they do not un- derstand the gospel of love. The mild-featured maidens as well as the stern old men draw away from him lest the sanctu- ary be polluted by his presence. He is a symbol of "a sweet infant of the skies" who strayed from home, but "all the in- habitants of this miserable world closed their impure hearts against him, drew back their earth-soiled garments from his touch, and said, 'we are holier than thou.' " (I, ioo.) The whole tale is an indictment of harsh, stern, and self-righteous Puri- tanism, but this one aspect of Puritan exclusiveness is singled out for special attack. In one of the most moving scenes in his short fiction, Hawthorne uses the Puritan children as opera- tive symbols of the sharp cruelty which results from bigoted and fanatic exclusiveness. Ilbrahim made friends with another boy, whose fall from a tree had confined him for his period of recovery to the Pearsons' home. When partially recovered, the invalid completes his convalescence at his own home. Ilbrahim has no other friends and cannot resist trying to join a group of This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 199 Puritan children at their play.Their mirth stops the moment they see him try to join them,and they rush upon him display- ing "an instinct of destruction far more loathsome than the bloodthirstiness of manhood."His former friend,the invalid, stands apart from the group and calls to him,"Fear not, Ilbrahim,come hither and take my hand."With unsullied trust,Ilbrahim strives to obey him."After watching the vic- tim's struggling approach with a calm smile and unabashed eye,the foul-hearted little villain lifted his staff and struck Ilbrahim on the mouth,so forcibly that the blood issued in a stream."His arms had been raised to protect himself,but now he dropped them at once.The injury to his body was severe, but the injury done to his spirit was worse.(I,119-120.) The community is not content to torment the boy;its mem- bers also interpret the ways of Providence for Tobias Pear- son.From their position of rigid righteousness,the New Eng- land Pharisees point out that his domestic sorrows are signs of God's ill-favor.This was a part of the uncompromising logic of their system.New England offered opportunities for a man without fortune,and Pearson had found it difficult to provide for his wife and family in England.This supposed impurity of motive was responsible for his lack of prosperity here and for the loss of his children."Those expounders of the ways of Providence"attributed his domestic sorrows to his sin.And they were much less charitable after he adopted a child of"the accursed sect."(I,96.) Ilbrahim must die,of course,so that his gentle spirit can win in death what he could not attain in life.Eventually,the once bitter persecutors can follow the body of Ilbrahim's real mother,whom Hawthorne also has condemned for her "un- bridled fanaticism,"to her grave with some real sorrow. Hawthorne's attitude toward the religious tenets of Puri- tanism or Calvinism seemed to color his use of the words them- selves.Evidence shows that he associated things he disliked with the connotations suggested by Calvinism or Puritanism. When he wanted to describe a cordial clergyman,Rev.Dr. Burroughs,he wrote,"The Doctor is a most genial old clergy- This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 199 Puritan children at their play. Their mirth stops the moment they see him try to join them, and they rush upon him display- ing "an instinct of destruction far more loathsome than the bloodthirstiness of manhood." His former friend, the invalid, stands apart from the group and calls to him, "Fear not, Ilbrahim, come hither and take my hand." With unsullied trust, Ilbrahim strives to obey him. "After watching the vic- tim's struggling approach with a calm smile and unabashed eye, the foul-hearted little villain lifted his staff and struck Ilbrahim on the mouth, so forcibly that the blood issued in a stream." His arms had been raised to protect himself, but now he dropped them at once. The injury to his body was severe, but the injury done to his spirit was worse. (I, 1 19-12o.) The community is not content to torment the boy; its mem- bers also interpret the ways of Providence for Tobias Pear- son. From their position of rigid righteousness, the New Eng- land Pharisees point out that his domestic sorrows are signs of God's ill-favor. This was a part of the uncompromising logic of their system. New England offered opportunities for a man without fortune, and Pearson had found it difficult to provide for his wife and family in England. This supposed impurity of motive was responsible for his lack of prosperity here and for the loss of his children. "Those expounders of the ways of Providence" attributed his domestic sorrows to his sin. And they were much less charitable after he adopted a child of "the accursed sect." (i, 96.) Ilbrahim must die, of course, so that his gentle spirit can win in death what he could not attain in life. Eventually, the once bitter persecutors can follow the body of Ilbrahim's real mother, whom Hawthorne also has condemned for her "un- bridled fanaticism," to her grave with some real sorrow. Hawthorne's attitude toward the religious tenets of Puri- tanism or Calvinism seemed to color his use of the words them- selves. Evidence shows that he associated things he disliked with the connotations suggested by Calvinism or Puritanism. When he wanted to describe a cordial clergyman, Rev. Dr. Burroughs, he wrote, "The Doctor is a most genial old clergyThis content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

200 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY man...with nothing Calvinistic about him."5 And when he wanted an adjective to portray an unpleasant and outra- geously religious woman,"Calvinistic"came to mind;"I led in Mrs.Bramley-Moore...and found her a stupid woman,of vulgar tone,and outrageously religious-even to the giving away of little tracts,and lending religious books...I could see little to distinguish her from a rigidly orthodox and Calvin- istic woman of New England."e In Our Old Home "an ex- ceedingly grim waiter"must be a"genuine descendant of the old Puritans'”and“quite as sour.”(xL,225)The unpleasant Swiss caretaker of Chillon Castle is "grim and Calvinistic- looking."(xxu,383.)A Protestant cathedral in Switzerland disturbed him because of its "Puritanic neatness"which ef- faced the"majesty and mystery that belong to an old church." (XxI,393-394.)He feels that the comparative freedom of the Catholic cathedral is more agreeable than "the grim formali- ties of...our own meeting-houses."(xxI,272.)In"Dr.Bulli- vant"Hawthorne specifically identifies Calvinism with Amer- ican Puritanism when he refers to the American minister as "a sour old Genevan divine."(xvI,269.)This is accompanied by a bitter commentary on the Puritan sermon,that important means for giving form to Puritan theology. Hawthorne uses this same technique of association in his fiction as a stylistic device for establishing the reader's mood for accepting the tone of a character portrayal.This is adroitly accomplished in The House of the Seven Gables where in every instance that Judge Pyncheon is most hateful,he is com- pared directly,in looks and actions,with his Puritan ancestors. When the unsavory Colonel Pyncheon dies early in the ro- mance,Hawthorne tells us that"the iron-hearted Puritan,the relentless persecutor,the grasping and strong-willed man,was dead!"(vI,17 and 338.)The portrait of the Colonel,which serves such an important artistic role in the structure of the romance,is described in terms of the sharpest irony.He holds 5 American Notebooks,16. e The English Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne,edited by Randall Stewart (New York,1941),55. This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

200 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY man ... with nothing Calvinistic about him." And when he wanted an adjective to portray an unpleasant and outra- geously religious woman, "Calvinistic" came to mind; "I led in Mrs. Bramley-Moore .. . and found her a stupid woman, of vulgar tone, and outrageously religious-even to the giving away of little tracts, and lending religious books ... I could see little to distinguish her from a rigidly orthodox and Calvin- istic woman of New England."6 In Our Old Home "an ex- ceedingly grim waiter" must be a "genuine descendant of the old Puritans" and "quite as sour." (xi, 225.) The unpleasant Swiss caretaker of Chillon Castle is "grim and Calvinistic- looking." (xxII, 383.) A Protestant cathedral in Switzerland disturbed him because of its "Puritanic neatness" which ef- faced the "majesty and mystery that belong to an old church." (XXII, 393-394.) He feels that the comparative freedom of the Catholic cathedral is more agreeable than "the grim formali- ties of ... our own meeting-houses." (xxII, 272.) In "Dr. Bulli- vant" Hawthorne specifically identifies Calvinism with Amer- ican Puritanism when he refers to the American minister as "a sour old Genevan divine." (xvii, 269.) This is accompanied by a bitter commentary on the Puritan sermon, that important means for giving form to Puritan theology. Hawthorne uses this same technique of association in his fiction as a stylistic device for establishing the reader's mood for accepting the tone of a character portrayal. This is adroitly accomplished in The House of the Seven Gables where in every instance that Judge Pyncheon is most hateful, he is com- pared directly, in looks and actions, with his Puritan ancestors. When the unsavory Colonel Pyncheon dies early in the ro- mance, Hawthorne tells us that "the iron-hearted Puritan, the relentless persecutor, the grasping and strong-willed man, was dead!" (vII, 17 and 338.) The portrait of the Colonel, which serves such an important artistic r6le in the structure of the romance, is described in terms of the sharpest irony. He holds 5 American Notebooks, 16. 6 The English Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Randall Stewart (New York, 1941), 55- This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

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