EXPERIMENTALIPSYCHOLOGYNINTHEDITIONBARRYH.KANTOWITZHENRYL.ROEDIGERIHDAVIDG.ELMES
ExperimentalPsychologyNINTH EDITIONBarry.H.KantowitzUniversityofMichiganHenryL.RoedigerIllWashingtonUniversity in St.LouisDavid G.ElmesWashington and LeeUniversityWADSWORTH-CENGAGELearningAustralia·Brazil·Japan-Korea-Mexico.Singapore·Spain·United Kingdom·United States
Experimental Psychology NINTH EDITION Barry. H. Kantowitz University of Michigan Henry L. Roediger III Washington University in St. Louis David G. Elmes Washington and Lee University Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd i 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd i 3/6/08 7:06:43 PM /6/08 7:06:43 PM
WADSWORTHCENGAGE LearningExperimental Psychology, Ninth Edition2009,2005 Wadsworth, Cengage LearningBarryH.Kantowitz,Henry L.Roediger lll,ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyrightDavid G.Elmesherein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or byany means graphic,electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited toPublisher: Michele Sordiphotocopying,recording,scanning,digitizing,taping,Web distributionAssistant Editor: Rebecca Rosenberginformation networks,or information storage and retrieval systems, exceptTechnology Project Manager: Lauren Keyesas permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States CopyrightAct, without the prior written permission of the publisherMarketing Manager: Michelle WilliamsMarketing Assistant: Melanie CreggerFor product information and technology assistance, contactus atMarketing Communications Manager:CengageLearningCustomer&Sales Support,1-800-354-9706Linda YipFor permission to use materialfrom this text or product,ProjectManager,Editorial Production:submit allrequests online at cengage.com/permissionsPat WaldoFurther permissions questions can be e-mailed topermissionrequest@cengage.comCreative Director: Rob HugelArt Director: Vernon BoesLibrary of Congress Control Number: 2008920142Text Designer: Cheryl CarringtonISBN-13: 978-0-495-59533-5Print Buyer: Paula VangISBN-10: 0-495-59533-0Text/Art Permissions Editor:Margaret Chamberlain-GastonImage Permissions Editor: Deanna EttingerWadsworth10DavisDriveProduction Service: Carol OConnell, GraphicBelmont, CA 94002-3098World Publishing ServicesUSAPhoto Researcher: Susan Van EttenIllustrator: Lori HecklemanCengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutionsCover Designer: Bill Stantonwith office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the UnitedCover Image: Ryuichi Okano/Getty ImagesKingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil,and Japan, Locate your local office at(main image) and Akira Inoue/Gettyinternational.cengage.com/region.Images (inset image)Compositor: Graphic World Inc.Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by NelsonEducation, Ltd.For your course and learning solutions, visit academic.cengage.com.Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferredonlinestorewww.ichapters.com.Printed in the United States of America09081234567121110
Experimental Psychology, Ninth Edition Barry H. Kantowitz, Henry L. Roediger III, David G. Elmes Publisher: Michele Sordi Assistant Editor: Rebecca Rosenberg Technology Project Manager: Lauren Keyes Marketing Manager: Michelle Williams Marketing Assistant: Melanie Cregger Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip Project Manager, Editorial Production: Pat Waldo Creative Director: Rob Hugel Art Director: Vernon Boes Text Designer: Cheryl Carrington Print Buyer: Paula Vang Text/Art Permissions Editor: Margaret Chamberlain-Gaston Image Permissions Editor: Deanna Ettinger Production Service: Carol O’Connell, Graphic World Publishing Services Photo Researcher: Susan Van Etten Illustrator: Lori Heckleman Cover Designer: Bill Stanton Cover Image: © Ryuichi Okano/Getty Images (main image) and © Akira Inoue/Getty Images (inset image) Compositor: Graphic World Inc. Library of Congress Control Number: 2008920142 ISBN- 13: 978-0-495-59533-5 ISBN- 10: 0-495-59533-0 Wadsworth 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with offi ce locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local offi ce at international.cengage.com/region. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit academic.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.ichapters.com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 11 10 09 08 For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com © 2009, 2005 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd ii 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd ii 3/6/08 7:06:46 PM /6/08 7:06:46 PM
Tothree outstanding psychologistswho shared thefunand excitement:ofexperimental psychologywithusDavidA.Grant, William M.Hinton,and L.Starling Reid
To three outstanding psychologists who shared the fun and excitement of experimental psychology with us, David A. Grant, William M. Hinton, and L. Starling Reid 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd iii 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd iii 3/6/08 7:06:46 PM /6/08 7:06:46 PM
ABOUT THEAUTHORSBARRY H:KANTOWTIZis ProfessOr OfPsychology,Professor of Industrial andOperationalEngineering,andformerDirec-tor oftheTransportation ResearchInstituteat the University of Michigan. Prior to that,he was Chief Scientist of the Human Factors Transportation Center of the BattelleMemorial Institute inSeattle.Hereceivedthe Ph.D. degree in experimental psychol-ogy from the Universityof Wisconsin in 1969.From 1969to1987he held positions as Assistant, Associate,and Professor of Psychological Sciencesat Purdue University,West Lafayette,IndianaDr.KantowitzwaselectedaFellowoftheAmericanPsvchologicalAssociationin1974.HehasbeenaNational InstituteofMentalHealthPostdoctoralFellowattheUniversityofOregon,aSeniorLecturerinErgonomics at the Norwegian Institute of Technology,Trondheim,Norway, and a Visiting Professor of Technical Psychology at the Uni-versity of Lulea, Sweden. He has written and edited more than onedozen books.His research on human attention,mental workload,reactiontime,human-machineinteraction,andhumanfactorshasbeen supported bytheOfficeof Education,theNational Institute ofMental Health,the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministrationthe AirForceOfficeof ScientificResearch,andthe Federal HighwayAdministration.Hehasserved as editor of theTransportationHumanFactorsJournal,AssociateEditor of HumanFactors,andeditsthebookseries HumanFactorsinTransportation.HENRYL.ROEDIGERIistheJamesSMcDonnell University Distinguished UniversityProfessor of Psychology and Dean of AcademicPlanning at Washington University in St. Louiswhere he has taught since 1996.He receiveda B.A.degree in psychology from Washingtonand Lee University in 1969 and a Ph.D. in cognitive psychology from Yale University in 1973Hehas taught atRice University(1988-1996)and Purdue University (1973-1988) and spent 3 years as a visitingprofessor at the University of Toronto. His research interests lie incognitive psychology,particularly in human learning and memoryDr.Roediger has published over180 articles,chapters,and reviews
v BARRY H. KANTOWITZ is Professor of Psychology, Professor of Indus trial and Operational Engineering, and former Director of the Transportation Re search Institute at the University of Michigan. Prior to that, he was Chief Scientist of the Human Factors Trans portation Center of the Battelle Mem orial Institute in Seattle. He received the Ph.D. degree in experimental psychology from the University of Wisconsin in 1969. From 1969 to 1987 he held positions as Assistant, Associate, and Professor of Psychological Sciences at Purdue Uni versity, West Lafayette, Indiana. Dr. Kantowitz was elected a Fellow of the American Psychological Association in 1974. He has been a National Institute of Mental Health Postdoctoral Fellow at the Uni versity of Oregon, a Senior Lecturer in Ergonomics at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway, and a Visiting Professor of Technical Psychology at the University of Lulea, Sweden. He has written and edited more than one dozen books. His research on human attention, mental workload, reaction time, human-machine interaction, and human factors has been supported by the Offi ce of Education, the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Air Force Offi ce of Scientifi c Research, and the Federal Highway Administration. He has served as editor of the Transportation Human Factors Journal, Associate Editor of Human Factors, and edits the book series Human Factors in Transportation. HENRY L. ROEDIGER III is the James S. McDonnell University Distinguished University Professor of Psychology and Dean of Academic Planning at Washington University in St. Louis, where he has taught since 1996. He received a B.A. degree in psychology from Washington and Lee University in 1969 and a Ph.D. in cognitive psychology from Yale University in 1973. He has taught at Rice University (1988–1996) and Purdue University (1973–1988) and spent 3 years as a visiting professor at the University of Toronto. His research interests lie in cognitive psychology, particularly in human learning and memory. Dr. Roediger has published over 180 articles, chapters, and reviews, ABOUT THE AUTHORS 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd v 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd v 3/6/08 7:06:46 PM /6/08 7:06:46 PM
viABOUTTHEAUTHORSas well as two othertextbooks:Psycbology (coauthored withE.D.Capaldi,S.G.ParisJ.Polivy,and P.Herman)and Researcb Metbods in Psycbology (with D.G.Elmes andB.H.Kantowitz).He also co-edited Varieties of Memory and Consciousness:Essays inHonourof EndelTulving(1989)and TbeScienceof Memory:Concepts(2007),aswellas several other books.Dr.Roedigerhas served as editor of the Journal of Experimen-tal Psycbology:Learning,Memoryand Cognition(1984-1989)and was thefoundingeditor of Psycbonomic Bulletin Review(1994-1997).He is a consulting editorfornine journals,includingPsycbological Science,theJournalof Experimental PsycbologyLearning,Memory,and Cognition,theJournalofMemoryand Language,and Memory,among others. He has served as President of the American Psychological Society, theMidwest Psychological Association,and theExperimental Psychology Division of theAmerican Psychological Association.He was a member of the Governing Board ofthe Psychonomic Society for 5years and its Chair in1989-1990.He has been nameda Highly Cited Researcherby the Institute of Scientific Information and also received aGuggenheim Fellowship. Roediger has been elected to membership in the Society ofExperimental Psychologists and theAmericanAcademyof Arts and Sciences,as well asbeing elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, theAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,theAssociationforPsychologicalScience,andtheCanadianPsychological Association.DAVID G.ELMES is Professor Emeritus of Psychologyat Washington and Lee University, where he taught for40 years.He earned his B.A.withhighhonors from the Universityof Virginiaandcompleted theM.A.andPh.D.degreesin psychology there.Dr.Elmes was an adjunct professor atHampden-Sydney College, was a research associate for ayear in theHuman Performance Center of theUniversity ofMichigan, and was a Visiting Fellow of University CollegeattheUniversity of Oxford.At Washington and Lee,hecodirectedtheCognitiveScienceProgramfor14yearsandchaired the Department of Psychology forten years.Professor Elmes edited Readings in Experimental Psycbology,Directory of Researcb inPsycbology at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions, and is coauthor of the eighthedition of Researcb Metbods inPsycbology (2006,withB.H.KantowitzandH. L. Roediger I).Dr. Elmes has published numerous articles concerned with humanand animal learning,memory, and the sense of smell.The smell research has beensupported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.He frequentlyreferees papers submitted to technical journals and was a consulting editorforthe Jour-nal of Experimental Psycbology:Learning,Memory and Cognitionfor several years.Professor Elmes is passionate about the educational value of undergraduate research.Foranumberofyears hewasactiveintheCouncilofUndergraduate Research,forwhichhehas served asPsychology Councilor,PsychologyDivision Chair,andPresidentDr.Elmes is a fellow of the Association for Psychological Science
as well as two other textbooks: Psychology (coauthored with E. D. Capaldi, S. G. Paris, J. Polivy, and P. Herman) and Research Methods in Psychology (with D. G. Elmes and B. H. Kantowitz). He also co-edited Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honour of Endel Tulving (1989) and The Science of Memory: Concepts (2007), as well as several other books. Dr. Roediger has served as editor of the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition (1984–1989) and was the founding editor of Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (1994-1997). He is a consulting editor for nine journals, including Psychological Science, the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, the Journal of Memory and Language, and Memory, among others. He has served as President of the American Psychological Society, the Midwest Psychological Association, and the Experimental Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association. He was a member of the Governing Board of the Psychonomic Society for 5 years and its Chair in 1989–1990. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by the Institute of Scientifi c Information and also received a Guggenheim Fellowship. Roediger has been elected to membership in the Society of Experimental Psychologists and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, as well as being elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psychological Science, and the Canadian Psychological Association. DAVID G. ELMES is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Washington and Lee University, where he taught for 40 years. He earned his B.A. with high honors from the University of Virginia and completed the M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in psychology there. Dr. Elmes was an adjunct professor at Hampden-Sydney College, was a research associate for a year in the Human Performance Center of the University of Michigan, and was a Visiting Fellow of University College at the University of Oxford. At Washington and Lee, he codirected the Cognitive Science Program for 14 years and chaired the Department of Psychology for ten years. Professor Elmes edited Readings in Experimental Psychology, Directory of Research in Psychology at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions, and is coauthor of the eighth edition of Research Methods in Psychology (2006, with B. H. Kantowitz and H. L. Roediger III). Dr. Elmes has published numerous articles concerned with human and animal learning, memory, and the sense of smell. The smell research has been supported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. He frequently referees papers submitted to technical journals and was a consulting editor for the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition for several years. Professor Elmes is passionate about the educational value of undergraduate research. For a number of years he was active in the Council of Undergraduate Research, for which he has served as Psychology Councilor, Psychology Division Chair, and President. Dr. Elmes is a fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. vi ABOUT THE AUTHORS 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd vi 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd vi 3/6/08 7:06:48 PM /6/08 7:06:48 PM
CONTENTS IN BRIEEPARTONE1FUNDAMENTALSOFRESEARCH3Chapter 1Explanation in Scientific PsychologyChapter 2ResearchTechniques:Observation24and Correlation51Chapter 3ResearchTechniques:Experiments82Chapter 4Ethics in Psychological ResearchChapter 599HowtoReadandWriteResearchReportsPARTTWOPRINCIPLESANDPRACTICES151OFEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLOGYChapter 6153PsychophysicsChapter 7180PerceptionChapter 8207AttentionandReactionTime227Chapter 9Conditioning and Learning261Chapter 10Remembering and ForgettingChapter 11297Thinking and Problem SolvingChapter 12327IndividualDifferencesandDevelopment358Chapter 13Social Psychology388Chapter 14Environmental Psychology410Chapter 15HumanFactorsvii
vii CONTENTS IN BRIEF ▼ PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH 1 Chapter 1 Explanation in Scientific Psychology 3 Chapter 2 Research Techniques: Observation and Correlation 24 Chapter 3 Research Techniques: Experiments 51 Chapter 4 Ethics in Psychological Research 82 Chapter 5 How to Read and Write Research Reports 99 ▼ PART TWO PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 151 Chapter 6 Psychophysics 153 Chapter 7 Perception 180 Chapter 8 Attention and Reaction Time 207 Chapter 9 Conditioning and Learning 227 Chapter 10 Remembering and Forgetting 261 Chapter 11 Thinking and Problem Solving 297 Chapter 12 Individual Differences and Development 327 Chapter 13 Social Psychology 358 Chapter 14 Environmental Psychology 388 Chapter 15 Human Factors 410 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd vii 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd vii 3/6/08 7:06:48 PM /6/08 7:06:48 PM
CONTENTSPARTONEFUNDAMENTALSOFRESEARCH3CHAPTER1EXPLANATIONINSCIENTIFICPSYCHOLOGYMaking Senseof theWorld4Social Loafing4Curiosity: The Wellspring of Science5Sources ofKnowledge6Fixation of Belief 6The Nature of the Scientific Explanation8What Is a Theory?8Induction and Deduction912FromTheorytoHypothesisEvaluatingTheories14InterveningVariables15Foxes and Hedgehogs Roaming throughPsychological Theory 17The Science of Psychology18Psychology and the Real World19Summary22KeyTerms23Discussion Questions23Web Connections23CHAPTER2RESEARCHTECHNIQUES:OBSERVATION24ANDCORRELATIONNaturalistic Observation 26What Do We Observe?28Reactivity30The Case Study31Survey Research 32Advantages and Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations33TheRelational Approach36Contingency Research36Correlational Research 38TheCorrelationCoefficient3844ComplexCorrelational Proceduresix
ix CONTENTS ▼ PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 1 EXPLANATION IN SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY 3 Making Sense of the World 4 Social Loafi ng 4 Curiosity: The Wellspring of Science 5 Sources of Knowledge 6 Fixation of Belief 6 The Nature of the Scientifi c Explanation 8 What Is a Theory? 8 Induction and Deduction 9 From Theory to Hypothesis 12 Evaluating Theories 14 Intervening Variables 15 Foxes and Hedgehogs Roaming through Psychological Theory 17 The Science of Psychology 18 Psychology and the Real World 19 Summary 22 Key Terms 23 Discussion Questions 23 Web Connections 23 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES: OBSERVATION AND CORRELATION 24 Naturalistic Observation 26 What Do We Observe? 28 Reactivity 30 The Case Study 31 Survey Research 32 Advantages and Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations 33 The Relational Approach 36 Contingency Research 36 Correlational Research 38 The Correlation Coeffi cient 38 Complex Correlational Procedures 44 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd ix 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd ix 3/6/08 7:06:48 PM /6/08 7:06:48 PM
CONTENTSXCause: A Note4648SummaryKeyTerms49DiscussionQuestions4950WebConnections50LaboratoryResource51CHAPTER3RESEARCHTECHNIQUES:EXPERIMENTSWhat Is an Experiment?52553Advantages of ExperimentsWhy Experiments Are Conducted54Variables55Independent Variables55Dependent Variables56Control Variables57Name the Variables5758More Than One Independent VariableMore Than One Dependent Variable6364Experimental DesignsBetween-Subjects Designs64Within-Subjects Designs65Small-n Designs66Mixed Designs6767Control ConditionsPitfalls6871Quasi-ExperimentsFrom Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts76Conducting an Experiment76From Problem to Experiment7677Data77ObtainingData78Analyzing Data78Reporting Data79Summary80Key TermsDiscussionQuestions8181Web Connections82CHAPTER4ETHICSINPSYCHOLOGICALRESEARCHResearch with Human ParticipantsS83185Informed Consent and DeceptionFreedomto Withdraw86Protection from Harm and Debriefing87Removing Harmful Consequences8788Confidentiality
x CONTENTS Cause: A Note 46 Summary 48 Key Terms 49 Discussion Questions 49 Web Connections 50 Laboratory Resource 50 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES: EXPERIMENTS 51 What Is an Experiment? 52 Advantages of Experiments 53 Why Experiments Are Conducted 54 Variables 55 Independent Variables 55 Dependent Variables 56 Control Variables 57 Name the Variables 57 More Than One Independent Variable 58 More Than One Dependent Variable 63 Experimental Designs 64 Between-Subjects Designs 64 Within-Subjects Designs 65 Small-n Designs 66 Mixed Designs 67 Control Conditions 67 Pitfalls 68 Quasi-Experiments 71 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts 76 Conducting an Experiment 76 From Problem to Experiment 76 Data 77 Obtaining Data 77 Analyzing Data 78 Reporting Data 78 Summary 79 Key Terms 80 Discussion Questions 81 Web Connections 81 CHAPTER 4 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 82 Research with Human Participants 83 Informed Consent and Deception 85 Freedom to Withdraw 86 Protection from Harm and Debriefi ng 87 Removing Harmful Consequences 87 Confi dentiality 88 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd x 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd x 3/6/08 7:06:49 PM /6/08 7:06:49 PM
CONTENTSxiEthics inResearchwithAnimals589589Arguments against Research with AnimalsArguments for Researchwith Animals9091Guidelines for Use of Animals in ResearchScientific Fraud 92Monitoring Ethical Practices94Summary95KeyTerms 96Discussion Questions96WebConnections96Suggested Readings 97Psycbology in Action:Understandingand Remembering Consent Forms9799CHAPTER5HOWTOREADANDWRITERESEARCHREPORTSHow to Do a Literature Search1100The Parts of an Article101101Title and Author(s)Abstract101Introduction102Method102Results102Discussion105105ReferencesChecklistfortheCriticalReader105106Introduction1106MethodResults107Discussion107Checklist Summary 108ASampleJournal Article109Writing a Research Report118Format119121Sample ManuscriptStyle143e146Publishing an ArticleSummary147KeyTerms147WebConnections148LaboratoryResource148Psycbology in Action:ALiterature Searcb148
CONTENTS xi Ethics in Research with Animals 89 Arguments against Research with Animals 89 Arguments for Research with Animals 90 Guidelines for Use of Animals in Research 91 Scientifi c Fraud 92 Monitoring Ethical Practices 94 Summary 95 Key Terms 96 Discussion Questions 96 Web Connections 96 Suggested Readings 97 Psychology in Action: Understanding and Remembering Consent Forms 97 CHAPTER 5 HOW TO READ AND WRITE RESEARCH REPORTS 99 How to Do a Literature Search 100 The Parts of an Article 101 Title and Author(s) 101 Abstract 101 Introduction 102 Method 102 Results 102 Discussion 105 References 105 Checklist for the Critical Reader 105 Introduction 106 Method 106 Results 107 Discussion 107 Checklist Summary 108 A Sample Journal Article 109 Writing a Research Report 118 Format 119 Sample Manuscript 121 Style 143 Publishing an Article 146 Summary 147 Key Terms 147 Web Connections 148 Laboratory Resource 148 Psychology in Action: A Literature Search 148 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xi 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xi 3/6/08 7:06:49 PM /6/08 7:06:49 PM