《新闻传播史》课程教学资源（文献资料）联合国教科文——事实核查 Fact-checking 101.pdf_大学文库

MODULE5:Fact-checking 101MODULE5Fact-checking 101byAlexiosMantzarlisSynopsisFrompoliticians to marketers, fromadvocacy groups to brands-everyone whoseeks to convince others has an incentive to distort, exaggerate or obfuscate thefacts.This module seeks to equipparticipants witha methodologyto detect fact-checkable claims and evaluate evidence critically,in line with ethical norms andstandards.OutlineHistory and semantics offact-checking as aformofaccountabilityjournalismDaniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S.Senator for the state of New York and Ambassador toIndia and the United Nations (1927-2003)famously said:“Everyone is entitled to his ownopinion,butnot tohisown facts.44The term“fact-checking"can mean two different things in journalism. Traditionally,fact-checkers were employed by newsrooms to proofread and verifyfactual claimsmade by reporters in their articles.This genre of fact-checking evaluates the solidityofthereporting,double-checksfacts andfigures,andserves as an overall roundofqualitycontrolfora news outlet's content beforepublication.Thedawn of this practicein modern journalism-at least in the West-is attributed to major U.S.weeklymagazines like TIME inthe1920s.145Theeconomiccontractionexperiencedbymostnewsorganisationsaroundtheworldsince the turn of the 21st century14 has meant that fact-checking departments haveshrunk, been merged with copy-editing desks, or eliminated altogether.Today, it isprimarilyhigh-browweeklymagazines likeTheNewYorker intheUnited StatesorDerSpiegelin Germany that still employ dedicated editorial fact-checkers.147Thetype of fact-checkingwhich will bethefocusof this modulehappensnotbeforesomething is published but aftera claim becomes of public relevance.This form of“ex144 Moynihan, D. & Weisman, S. (2010).Daniel Patrick Moynihan. New York: PublicAffairs.145 Scriber, B. (2o16). Who decides what's true in politics? A history of the rise of political fact-checking. [online] Poynterchecking [accessed 28/03/2018]Availableat:https://ww146 See Module Three147 Bloyd-Peshkin, S. & Sivek, S. (2o17). Magazines find there's little time to fact-check online. [online] Columbia Journalism Review.Availableat:https:/www.cir.org/b-roll/mane-fact-checking-online.php[accessed28/o3/2018]This content isfrom: Journalism,“Fake News'Download full book:- 81 -&Disinformation.UNESCO.2o18https:/bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 81 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 MODULE 5 Fact-checking 101 by Alexios Mantzarlis Synopsis From politicians to marketers, from advocacy groups to brands — everyone who seeks to convince others has an incentive to distort, exaggerate or obfuscate the facts. This module seeks to equip participants with a methodology to detect factcheckable claims and evaluate evidence critically, in line with ethical norms and standards. Outline History and semantics of fact-checking as a form of accountability journalism Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator for the state of New York and Ambassador to India and the United Nations (1927-2003) famously said: “Everyone is entitled to his own opinion, but not to his own facts.”144 The term “fact-checking” can mean two different things in journalism. Traditionally, fact-checkers were employed by newsrooms to proofread and verify factual claims made by reporters in their articles. This genre of fact-checking evaluates the solidity of the reporting, double-checks facts and figures, and serves as an overall round of quality control for a news outlet’s content before publication. The dawn of this practice in modern journalism — at least in the West — is attributed to major U.S. weekly magazines like TIME in the 1920s.145 The economic contraction experienced by most news organisations around the world since the turn of the 21st century146 has meant that fact-checking departments have shrunk, been merged with copy-editing desks, or eliminated altogether. Today, it is primarily high-brow weekly magazines like The New Yorker in the United States or Der Spiegel in Germany that still employ dedicated editorial fact-checkers.147 The type of fact-checking which will be the focus of this module happens not before something is published but after a claim becomes of public relevance. This form of “ex 144 Moynihan, D. & Weisman, S. (2010). Daniel Patrick Moynihan. New York: PublicAffairs. 145 Scriber, B. (2016). Who decides what’s true in politics? A history of the rise of political fact-checking. [online] Poynter. Available at: https://www.poynter.org/news/who-decides-whats-true-politics-history-rise-political-fact-checking [accessed 28/03/2018]. 146 See Module Three 147 Bloyd-Peshkin, S. & Sivek, S. (2017). Magazines find there’s little time to fact-check online. [online] Columbia Journalism Review. Available at: https://www.cjr.org/b-roll/magazine-fact-checking-online.php [accessed 28/03/2018]

post"fact-checking seeks to make politicians and otherpublic figures accountableforMODULE 5:Fact-checking 101the truthfulness of their statements.Fact-checkers in this line of work seek primary andreputablesourcesthat can confirmornegateclaimsmadeto thepublic.“Expost"fact-checkingconcentratesprimarily(butnotexclusively)onpoliticaladscampaignspeeches andpartymanifestos.Earlyprojects dedicatedto thisform ofpolitical fact-checking include Factcheck.org, a project of the Annenberg Public PolicyCenterat the University of Pennsylvania, launched in20o3,and Channel 4Fact Check,launched in 2005Fact-checking has grown in relevance and has spread around the world in the recentdecade.Two moments were particularly significant to the growth of this journalistic practice.Afirst wave was kick-started bythe 2oog Pulitzer Prize for national reporting,assigned toPolitiFact, a fact-checking project launched just over a year earlier by the St PetersburgTimes(nowTampa BayTimes)inFlorida.PolitiFact's innovation was torateclaims ona“Truth-O-Meter,"adding alayer of structureand clarityto thefact checks.(To critics,ratings introduce subjectivity to the process.) This structured approach made it veryclear to audiences what political fact-checking was about-and clarified the role oftheinstrument asa journalistictoolmeanttomakepublicfiguresaccountablefortheirwords - in the process, inspiring dozens of projects around the world.148The second wave of fact-checking projects emerged following the global surgein so-called fake news'.The term,now co-opted andmisused, describes entirelyfabricated sensationalist stories that reach enormous audiences by using social mediaalgorithms to theiradvantage.As it became clearover the courseof2o16 that theonline information infrastructurewas particularlypermeabletodisinformation andmisinformation,moreandmoregroupsdecided to turn theirattention tofact-checkingThis second waveoften concentrated asmuchonfact-checkingpublicclaimsasdebunking these viral hoaxes.Debunking is a subset of fact-checking and requires aspecific set of skills that are in common with verification (especially of user-generatedcontentknown as UGC-see Venn diagram below).This module will concentrate onfact-checking as defined below, while the next module will tackle verification of digitalcontentandsources.149148 Mantzarlis,A (2o7)In itsfrst decade, PolitiFact helped define poltical fact-checkingfar beyond Washington, .c[online] PoynterAvailable at: https://wwwpoynter.org/news/its-first-decade-politifact-helped-define-political-fact-chzr-hoeyond-washington-dc[accessed 28/03/2018],149 See Module SixThis content is from:Journalism, "Fake News'Download full book:- 82 -&Disinformation.UNESCO.2o18https:/bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 82 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 post” fact-checking seeks to make politicians and other public figures accountable for the truthfulness of their statements. Fact-checkers in this line of work seek primary and reputable sources that can confirm or negate claims made to the public. “Ex post” fact-checking concentrates primarily (but not exclusively) on political ads, campaign speeches and party manifestos. Early projects dedicated to this form of political fact-checking include Factcheck.org, a project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania, launched in 2003, and Channel 4 Fact Check, launched in 2005. Fact-checking has grown in relevance and has spread around the world in the recent decade. Two moments were particularly significant to the growth of this journalistic practice. A first wave was kick-started by the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for national reporting, assigned to PolitiFact, a fact-checking project launched just over a year earlier by the St Petersburg Times (now Tampa Bay Times) in Florida. PolitiFact’s innovation was to rate claims on a “Truth-O-Meter,” adding a layer of structure and clarity to the fact checks. (To critics, ratings introduce subjectivity to the process.) This structured approach made it very clear to audiences what political fact-checking was about — and clarified the role of the instrument as a journalistic tool meant to make public figures accountable for their words — in the process, inspiring dozens of projects around the world.148 The second wave of fact-checking projects emerged following the global surge in so-called ‘fake news’. The term, now co-opted and misused, describes entirely fabricated sensationalist stories that reach enormous audiences by using social media algorithms to their advantage. As it became clear over the course of 2016 that the online information infrastructure was particularly permeable to disinformation and misinformation, more and more groups decided to turn their attention to fact-checking. This second wave often concentrated as much on fact-checking public claims as debunking these viral hoaxes. Debunking is a subset of fact-checking and requires a specific set of skills that are in common with verification (especially of user-generated content known as UGC - see Venn diagram below). This module will concentrate on fact-checking as defined below, while the next module will tackle verification of digital content and sources.149 148 Mantzarlis, A. (2017). In its first decade, PolitiFact helped define political fact-checking far beyond Washington, D.C. [online] Poynter. Available at: https://www.poynter.org/news/its-first-decade-politifact-helped-define-political-fact-checking-far-beyond-washington-dc [accessed 28/03/2018]. 149 See Module Six

>Japan:“A newfact-checking coalition is launching in Japan"an articlebyMODULE 5: Fact-checking 101MasatoKajimotoforPoynter,availableathttps://www.poynter.org/newslnew-fact-checking-coalition-launching-japan South Korea:“"What's behind South Korea's fact-checking boom? Tensepolitics and the decline of investigative journalism,"an article by BoyoungLimfor Poynter,availableat http://www.poynter.org/2o1z/whats-behind-south-koreas-fact-checking-boom-tense-politics-and-the-decline-of-investigative-journalism/463655/l Latin America:“Lack of access to information is driving LatinAmerica'sfact-checkingboom"an article by Ivan Echt forPoynter,availableonlineathttps://www.poynter.org/news/lack-access-information-driving-latin-americas-fact-checking-boom United States of America:“Deciding What's True:The Rise of Political Fact-Checking in American Journalism"a book by Lucas Graves or its review byBrad ScriberonPoynter,availableonlineat:https://www.poynter.org/newslwho-decides-whats-true-politics-history-rise-political-fact-checkingMethodology and ethics of fact-checkingFact-checking is not rocket science. It is scrupulous analysis driven by one basicquestion:“Howdoweknowthat?"At the sametime,fact-checking is not spell-checkingThere is not a dictionary-style guidebook with all the facts,nor a simple software thatwill examinedocumentsand flaganytimesomethinghas beenmisstated asfact.Generallyspeaking,fact-checking iscomposed of threephases:1.Findingfact-checkableclaims by scouringthroughlegislativerecords,media outlets and social media. This process includes determiningwhich major public claims (a) can be fact-checked and (b) ought to befact-checked.2.Finding thefacts by looking for the best available evidence regarding theclaim at hand.3. Correcting the record by evaluating the claim in light of the evidence,usuallyona scaleof truthfulness.Trustworthy fact-checking organisations explain their process in public methodologies.Instructors may want to walk students through one or more of thefollowingThis content is from: Journalism,“Fake News'Download full book:-84-&Disinformation.UNESCO.2018https://bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 84 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 ɒ Japan: “A new fact-checking coalition is launching in Japan” an article by Masato Kajimoto for Poynter, available at https://www.poynter.org/news/ new-fact-checking-coalition-launching-japan ɒ South Korea: “What’s behind South Korea’s fact-checking boom? Tense politics and the decline of investigative journalism,” an article by Boyoung Lim for Poynter, available at http://www.poynter.org/2017/whats-behindsouth-koreas-fact-checking-boom-tense-politics-and-the-decline-ofinvestigative-journalism/463655/ ɒ Latin America: “Lack of access to information is driving Latin America’s fact-checking boom” an article by Ivan Echt for Poynter, available online at https://www.poynter.org/news/ lack-access-information-driving-latin-americas-fact-checking-boom ɒ United States of America: “Deciding What’s True: The Rise of Political FactChecking in American Journalism” a book by Lucas Graves or its review by Brad Scriber on Poynter, available online at: https://www.poynter.org/news/ who-decides-whats-true-politics-history-rise-political-fact-checking Methodology and ethics of fact-checking Fact-checking is not rocket science. It is scrupulous analysis driven by one basic question: “How do we know that?” At the same time, fact-checking is not spell-checking. There is not a dictionary-style guidebook with all the facts, nor a simple software that will examine documents and flag anytime something has been misstated as fact. Generally speaking, fact-checking is composed of three phases: 1. Finding fact-checkable claims by scouring through legislative records, media outlets and social media. This process includes determining which major public claims (a) can be fact-checked and (b) ought to be fact-checked. 2. Finding the facts by looking for the best available evidence regarding the claim at hand. 3. Correcting the record by evaluating the claim in light of the evidence, usually on a scale of truthfulness. Trustworthy fact-checking organisations explain their process in public methodologies. Instructors may want to walk students through one or more of the following:

1.Africa Check's“HowWeWork"page(accessibleathttps://africacheck.org/MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101about-us/how-we-workD as well as the infographic in the Materials section2.Chequeado's“"Metodo"(accessible in Spanish at:http://chequeado.com/metodoD3.Pagella Politica's“Metodologia"and"Come funzioniamo"(accessible inItalianathttps://pagellapolitica.it/progetto/index)4.PolitiFact's“The Principles of PolitiFact"(accessible at http:/lwww.politifact.com/truth-0-meter/article/2013/nov/o1/principles-politifact-punditfact-and-truth-o-meterDThe International Fact-CheckingNetwork (IFCN)5has alsodevelopeda codeofprinciples that guide conscientious fact-checkers in their everyday work.Fact-checking organisations apply to become verified signatories of the IFCN codeofprinciples.Thisrequiresanexternalassessmentthatevaluatestheeffectiveimplementationof thesestandards.Instructorsmaywanttofamiliarisethemselves withthe code and find assessments made on fact-checking organisations from their country'sand discuss whether the students find that these make themmore likely to trust thefact-checkers or not.Theseprincipleshavebeendevelopedtohelpreadersdiscerngoodfact-checkingfrombad.Foranexampleofmisinformationmasqueradingasfact-checking,instructorsmaywanttosharetheexamplesinthesetwoarticles: Thesefakefact-checkers are peddling lies about genocide and censorship inTurkey (Poynter) https://www.poynter.org/news/these-fake-fact-checkers-are-peddling-lies-about-genocide-and-censorship-turkey In the post-truth era Sweden's far-rightfake fact checker was inevitable(TheGuardian)https://www.theguardian.com/media/2o17/lian/19)in-the-post-truth-era-swedens-far-right-fake-fact-checker-was-inevitableWhatgets intheway of factsBefore diving into the practical aspects of fact-checking, students need to be aware ofits limitations-andtheirown.Some commentators have declared that we have entered a“post-truth"or“post-fact"era.Thesetermsfeaturedinheadlinesallovertheworldin2o16andwereselectedasitzarlis, leads the International Fact Checking Network151Theauthor,AlexiosMannational-fact-checking-network-fact-checkers-code-principles_[accessed: 28/o3/2o18]152Available at https:/www.poynter.org/inteThis content is from: Journalism,“Fake NewsDownload full book:- 85-&Disinformation.UNESCO.2018https://bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 85 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 1. Africa Check’s “How We Work” page (accessible at https://africacheck.org/ about-us/how-we-work/) as well as the infographic in the Materials section 2. Chequeado’s “Metodo” (accessible in Spanish at: http://chequeado.com/ metodo/) 3. Pagella Politica’s “Metodologia” and “Come funzioniamo” (accessible in Italian at https://pagellapolitica.it/progetto/index) 4. PolitiFact’s “The Principles of PolitiFact” (accessible at http:// www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2013/nov/01/ principles-politifact-punditfact-and-truth-o-meter/) The International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN)151 has also developed a code of principles that guide conscientious fact-checkers in their everyday work. Fact-checking organisations apply to become verified signatories of the IFCN code of principles. This requires an external assessment that evaluates the effective implementation of these standards. Instructors may want to familiarise themselves with the code and find assessments made on fact-checking organisations from their country152 and discuss whether the students find that these make them more likely to trust the fact-checkers or not. These principles have been developed to help readers discern good fact-checking from bad. For an example of misinformation masquerading as fact-checking, instructors may want to share the examples in these two articles: ɒ These fake fact-checkers are peddling lies about genocide and censorship in Turkey (Poynter) https://www.poynter.org/news/these-fake-fact-checkers-arepeddling-lies-about-genocide-and-censorship-turkey ɒ In the post-truth era Sweden’s far-right fake fact checker was inevitable. (The Guardian) https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/jan/19/ in-the-post-truth-era-swedens-far-right-fake-fact-checker-was-inevitable What gets in the way of facts Before diving into the practical aspects of fact-checking, students need to be aware of its limitations — and their own. Some commentators have declared that we have entered a “post-truth” or “post-fact” era. These terms featured in headlines all over the world in 2016 and were selected as 151 The author, Alexios Mantzarlis, leads the International Fact Checking Network 152 Available at https://www.poynter.org/international-fact-checking-network-fact-checkers-code-principles. [accessed: 28/03/2018]

the“Wordofthe Year"by,respectively,the Oxford EnglishDictionary and the SocietyMODULE 5:Fact-checking 101for the German Language. The argument made by the“post-truthers"is that politicsand the media have become so polarisedand tribal that citizens flat-out reject anyfactsthat they disagree with.That does not quite square with a growing body of research that has found that whencorrected especially through reference to authorities deemed credible by the audience,people become (on average)better informed. Instructors may want to read and discussthefollowing studies with their students:> Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J, Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. (2o17). Processingpoliticalmisinformation:comprehendingtheTrumpphenomenon (iMarch2017).Availableathttp://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/16802[accessed 28/03/2018].> Nyhan, B. & Zeitzoff, T. (2o18). Fighting the Past: Perceptions of Control,Historical Misperceptions,and Corrective Information in the Israeli-PalestinianConflict.Availableat:http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/1o.111/pops.12449/abstract.[accessed 28/o3/2018].Wood, T.& Porter, E. (2o16).The Elusive Backfire Effect:Mass AttitudesSteadfastFactualAdherence (August5,2o16).Availableat:https://ssrn.com/abstract=2819073.[accessed28/03/2018].At the same time, it would be absurdly simplistic to suggest that facts are perfectcharacterisations of the world and that humans are entirely rational beings whoincorporatenewfactsflawlesslyregardlessofpreviousbeliefandpersonal preferences.Eachofuscomeswithcognitiveandotherbiasesessentiallymental obstaclesthatcan get in the way of absorbing new factual information. It is crucial to stress that this isnot something that happens to other people, it happens to all of us.Instructors shoulddiscuss some of thesebiases in theclassroom.Confirmationbias[FromtheEncyclopaediaBritannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topicconfirmation-bias[accessed28/o3/2o18]:thetendencytoprocess informationby lookingfor,or interpreting,informationthat is consistent with one's existingbeliefs.This biased approach to decision making is largely unintentional and often results inignoring inconsistent information. Existing beliefs can include one's expectations in agiven situation and predictions about a particular outcome. People are especially likelyto process informationto support their own beliefs when the issue is highly importantor self-relevant.This content is from: Journalism, “Fake News'Download full book:-86-&Disinformation.UNESCO.2o18https:/bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 86 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 the “Word of the Year” by, respectively, the Oxford English Dictionary and the Society for the German Language. The argument made by the “post-truthers” is that politics and the media have become so polarised and tribal that citizens flat-out reject any facts that they disagree with. That does not quite square with a growing body of research that has found that when corrected especially through reference to authorities deemed credible by the audience, people become (on average) better informed. Instructors may want to read and discuss the following studies with their students: ɒ Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon (1 March 2017). Available at http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802 [accessed 28/03/2018]. ɒ Nyhan, B. & Zeitzoff, T. (2018). Fighting the Past: Perceptions of Control, Historical Misperceptions, and Corrective Information in the IsraeliPalestinian Conflict. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ pops.12449/abstract. [accessed 28/03/2018]. ɒ Wood, T. & Porter, E. (2016). The Elusive Backfire Effect: Mass Attitudes’ Steadfast Factual Adherence (August 5, 2016). Available at: https://ssrn.com/ abstract=2819073. [accessed 28/03/2018]. At the same time, it would be absurdly simplistic to suggest that facts are perfect characterisations of the world and that humans are entirely rational beings who incorporate new facts flawlessly regardless of previous belief and personal preferences. Each of us comes with cognitive and other biases — essentially mental obstacles — that can get in the way of absorbing new factual information. It is crucial to stress that this is not something that happens to other people, it happens to all of us. Instructors should discuss some of these biases in the classroom. Confirmation bias [From the Encyclopaedia Britannica — https://www.britannica.com/ topic/confirmation-bias [accessed 28/03/2018]: the tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with one’s existing beliefs. This biased approach to decision making is largely unintentional and often results in ignoring inconsistent information. Existing beliefs can include one’s expectations in a given situation and predictions about a particular outcome. People are especially likely to process information to support their own beliefs when the issue is highly important or self-relevant

Motivatedreasoning[FromDiscoverMagazine—http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/MODULE5:Fact-checking101intersection/2o11/o5/o5/what-is-motivated-reasoning-how-does-it-work-dan-kahan-answers/#.WfHrl4ZrzBl [accessed 28/o3/2018].Motivated cognition refers to theunconscious tendencyof individuals tofit theirprocessing ofinformation to conclusionsthat suit some end or goal. Consider a classic example. In the 195os, psychologists askedexperimental subjects, students from two Ivy League colleges,to watch a film thatfeatured a set of controversial officiating calls made duringa football gamebetweenteams from their respective schools.The students from eachschool weremore likelyto see thereferees'calls as correct when it favoured their school than when it favouredtheir rival.The researchers concluded that the emotional stake the students had inaffirming theirloyaltyto their respective institutions shaped what they saw on the tape.Availability heuristic [From Oxford University Press A Dictionary of Psychology-http://www.0xfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067-e-830 [accessed 28/03/2018].A cognitive heuristic through which thefrequency or probability of an event is judged by the number of instances of it thatcan readily be brought to mind.This can lead people to view an incorrect claim as truepurely because they can recall it easily. In an experiment conducted by Lisa Fazio atVanderbilt University,people who were asked to repeat the claim“a sari is a kilt"sixtimes were found to believe this blatantfalsehood more than those who repeated itonlyonce. Journalismcan turn itself intoa vectorforfalsehoods to becomebelievedby covering them uncritically. Media coverage of conspiracies around Barack Obama'splace of birth,for instance,may have playeda role in spreading a belief that the formerU.S. President was not actually born in Hawaii.Fact-checking itself, it should be noted, is an imperfect instrument. Something canbe ioo% accurate, and yet still leave out important context.53 Facts are invariablyconstructed, ordered and reordered meaningfully within broader narrative structureswhich can providedifferentsignificanceto the samebasic facts.Thetruth,moreover,ismore than a collection offacts.Fact-checking is not a tool to be deployed to shut downalternative interpretations as much as underwriting a series of facts that can impact onnarrative and individual predispositions, so as toground rational debate.Module aims>To improve familiarity with emerging good practice in fact-checking globallyTo raise awareness of the cognitive biases that can get in the way of factualunderstanding. To improve critical analysis skills153See example Yanofsky, D.(213).The chart Tim Cook doesnt want you to see.Available at https:lqz.com/i2292/the-charttim-cook-doesntwant-you-to-see/. [accessed 28/o3/2018]This content is from: Journalism, “Fake News'Download full book:- 87 -&Disinformation.UNESCO.2018https:/bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 87 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 Motivated reasoning [From Discover Magazine — http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/ intersection/2011/05/05/what-is-motivated-reasoning-how-does-it-work-dan-kahananswers/#.WfHrl4ZrzBI [accessed 28/03/2018]. Motivated cognition refers to the unconscious tendency of individuals to fit their processing of information to conclusions that suit some end or goal. Consider a classic example. In the 1950s, psychologists asked experimental subjects, students from two Ivy League colleges, to watch a film that featured a set of controversial officiating calls made during a football game between teams from their respective schools. The students from each school were more likely to see the referees’ calls as correct when it favoured their school than when it favoured their rival. The researchers concluded that the emotional stake the students had in affirming their loyalty to their respective institutions shaped what they saw on the tape. Availability heuristic [From Oxford University Press A Dictionary of Psychology — http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref- 9780199534067-e-830 [accessed 28/03/2018]. A cognitive heuristic through which the frequency or probability of an event is judged by the number of instances of it that can readily be brought to mind. This can lead people to view an incorrect claim as true purely because they can recall it easily. In an experiment conducted by Lisa Fazio at Vanderbilt University, people who were asked to repeat the claim “a sari is a kilt” six times were found to believe this blatant falsehood more than those who repeated it only once. Journalism can turn itself into a vector for falsehoods to become believed by covering them uncritically. Media coverage of conspiracies around Barack Obama’s place of birth, for instance, may have played a role in spreading a belief that the former U.S. President was not actually born in Hawaii. Fact-checking itself, it should be noted, is an imperfect instrument. Something can be 100% accurate, and yet still leave out important context.153 Facts are invariably constructed, ordered and reordered meaningfully within broader narrative structures which can provide different significance to the same basic facts. The truth, moreover, is more than a collection of facts. Fact-checking is not a tool to be deployed to shut down alternative interpretations as much as underwriting a series of facts that can impact on narrative and individual predispositions, so as to ground rational debate. Module aims ɒ To improve familiarity with emerging good practice in fact-checking globally ɒ To raise awareness of the cognitive biases that can get in the way of factual understanding. ɒ To improve critical analysis skills 153 See example Yanofsky, D.(2013). The chart Tim Cook doesn’t want you to see. Available at https://qz.com/122921/the-chart-tim-cook-doesntwant-you-to-see/. [accessed 28/03/2018]

- 89 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 B. Practical Module Plan Number of hours Learning Outcomes Activity 1: Finding fact-checkable claims 30 mins 3 Activity 2: Finding the facts 1 hour 2 i) Finding fact-checkable claims Fact-checking concentrates on claims that contain at least one fact or figure whose truthfulness can be objectively verified. Fact-checking does not assess the truthfulness of opinions and predictions, hyperbole, satire and jokes. Activity 1: Have students read the following excerpts of speeches by four public figures and highlight in one colour the factual (GREEN) statements that could be factchecked, in another the opinions that can’t be (RED) and in a third colour the parts that lie somewhere in between (ORANGE). After the students have handed in their annotated excerpts, walk through each of them and discuss what makes for a “factcheckable” claim. GUIDE Red – statements can’t be fact checked Orange – statements are in between Green – statements can be fact checked Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile While we have made significant progress in that direction, we are aware that we must address another threat to marine ecosystems — plastics. Year after year, 8 million tons of plastic make their way to the ocean, remaining there for hundreds of years and making a huge negative impact. To tackle that problem, we participate in the Clean Seas campaign of the United Nations Environment Programme. Meanwhile, at the local level, we will present a draft bill to ban the use of plastic bags in coastal cities within 12 months. That law will permit citizens to contribute to the protection of the oceans. We will thus be the first country in America to implement that type of law, and we call on other countries to assume that responsibility. Additionally, it is now 30 years since the adoption of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which enabled the ozone layer to recover. On this thirtieth anniversary, I would like to announce that my country has just deposited its ratification of the 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, which aims to prevent 0.5°C of global warming. Chile thereby becomes one of the first countries to ratify that new agreement. But that

isnotall.Withthecreationofanetworkof parks inPatagonia,wehavealsoadded4.5MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101millionhectaresofgreenareas,richinbiodiversity.whichwill nowbeprotected bytheStateforpublicuse.JacobZuma,formerPresidentofSouthAfricaThecurrentstructureoftheglobal economycontinuesto deepenthedividebetweentheglobalnorthandglobal south.Whileafewenjoythebenefits ofglobalisation,themajorityofthepeoplesoftheworldstill liveinabjectpovertyandhungerwithnohopeof ever improvingtheir living conditions.Even within thedeveloped countries,thegapbetweenrichandpoorremains wideand isofseriousconcern.Weneedthepoliticalwillandcommitmentfromglobal leaderstoaddressthechallengesandobstaclesposedbythisuntransformedstructureoftheglobal economy,ifwehopetoachievethegoalsandambitionsofAgenda2o3o.TheseunequalandunjusteconomicpowerrelationsmanifestthemselvessharplyinAfrica.Forexample,ourcontinentisendowedwithmineral resources,butit still hasthehighestnumber of leastdeveloped countriesSigmarGabriel,formerForeignMinisterofGermanyWe have to provide the United Nations with the means it needs to fulfil its mandate. Atpresent,however,thefigures tell a different storyTheWorldFoodProgrammereceiveslessthan5o%ofthefundingneededtocombattheworld'shungercrisestoday.The World DevelopmentProgramme receivesamere15%ofitscontributionsasvoluntary.non-tiedpaymentstoday.in2o11itwasstill5o%.AndthingsdonotlookanybetterwithrespecttootherUNaidprogrammes.It cannotbethatthoseinpositionsof responsibilityattheUnited Nations spendmore timedistributing begging letters to find thenecessary funding than in organisingeffectiveassistancehavetochangecoursehere.WehavetogranttheUnitedaNationstheright leveloffunding aswellasmorefreedom.In return,weneedmoreefficiencyand transparency withireoard to howthefundingisusedGermany,atany rate,intendsto maintain its financial supportfortheUnited NationsAsthefourthbiggestproviderofassessed contributions andfarbeyond that,forexampleas oneofthebiggestdonors of humanitarian assistancearound theworld,wewantto continuemakinga substantialinputMarkZuckerberg,CEOofFacebookFacebookisanidealisticandoptimisticcompany.Formostofourexistence,wefocusedonallthegoodthatconnecting.peoplecanbringAsFacebookhasgrown,peopleDownload full book:Thiscontentisfrom:Journalism,FakeNews-90-&Disinformation.UNESCO.2o18https://bit.ly/2MuELY5

- 90 - This content is from: Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation. UNESCO. 2018 Download full book: https://bit.ly/2MuELY5 MODULE 5: Fact-checking 101 is not all. With the creation of a network of parks in Patagonia, we have also added 4.5 million hectares of green areas, rich in biodiversity, which will now be protected by the State for public use. Jacob Zuma, former President of South Africa The current structure of the global economy continues to deepen the divide between the global north and global south. While a few enjoy the benefits of globalisation, the majority of the peoples of the world still live in abject poverty and hunger, with no hope of ever improving their living conditions. Even within the developed countries, the gap between rich and poor remains wide and is of serious concern. We need the political will and commitment from global leaders to address the challenges and obstacles posed by this untransformed structure of the global economy, if we hope to achieve the goals and ambitions of Agenda 2030. These unequal and unjust economic power relations manifest themselves sharply in Africa. For example, our continent is endowed with mineral resources, but it still has the highest number of least developed countries. Sigmar Gabriel, former Foreign Minister of Germany We have to provide the United Nations with the means it needs to fulfil its mandate. At present, however, the figures tell a different story: The World Food Programme receives less than 50% of the funding needed to combat the world’s hunger crises today. The World Development Programme receives a mere 15% of its contributions as voluntary, non-tied payments today, in 2011 it was still 50%. And things do not look any better with respect to other UN aid programmes. It cannot be that those in positions of responsibility at the United Nations spend more time distributing begging letters to find the necessary funding than in organising effective assistance. We have to change course here. We have to grant the United Nations the right level of funding as well as more freedom. In return, we need more efficiency and transparency with regard to how the funding is used. Germany, at any rate, intends to maintain its financial support for the United Nations. As the fourth biggest provider of assessed contributions and far beyond that, for example as one of the biggest donors of humanitarian assistance around the world, we want to continue making a substantial input. Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook Facebook is an idealistic and optimistic company. For most of our existence, we focused on all the good that connecting people can bring. As Facebook has grown, people