O. Introduction 0.1 Formalism and functionalism 0.1.1 Formalism L Definition Formal linguistics focuses on the analysis of the formal or structural aspect of language rather than its function or use in context. It favors the de-contextualized research paradigm IL. Representative theories A. Traditional grammar a traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a languag Traditional grammars are commonly used in language education. They may be contrasted with theories of grammar in theoretical linguistics, which grew out of traditional descriptions of grammar. While grammar frameworks in contemporary linguistics often seek to explain the nature of language knowledge and ability, traditional grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used or to teach people to speak or read them The formal study of grammar, based on the work of classical Greek and Latin philologists, became popular during the Renaissance. The use of traditional grammars has gone in and out of fashion in language teaching over the ensuing centuries Traditional grammars generally classify words into parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word inflection, and the rules of syntax by which those words are combined into sentences. For example at the front seat Subject Predication Predicate Adverbial (of location) (constituency, structure syntactic functions B Saussurean linguistics Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure. who is often described as "father of modern linguistics The three lines along which Saussure's ideas were developed: linguistics, sociology psychology 1)In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney, who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasize that language is an Institution 2)In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held that language one of the "social facts', which are ideas in the " collective mind"of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts 3)In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, who hypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called the unconscious 3. Saussures key notions 1)Signifier vs. signified Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist
1 0. Introduction 0.1 Formalism and functionalism 0.1.1 Formalism I. Definition Formal linguistics focuses on the analysis of the formal or structural aspect of language rather than its function or use in context. It favors the de-contextualized research paradigm. II. Representative theories A. Traditional grammar A traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a language. Traditional grammars are commonly used in language education. They may be contrasted with theories of grammar in theoretical linguistics, which grew out of traditional descriptions of grammar. While grammar frameworks in contemporary linguistics often seek to explain the nature of language knowledge and ability, traditional grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used, or to teach people to speak or read them. The formal study of grammar, based on the work of classical Greek and Latin philologists, became popular during the Renaissance. The use of traditional grammars has gone in and out of fashion in language teaching over the ensuing centuries. Traditional grammars generally classify words into parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word inflection, and the rules of syntax by which those words are combined into sentences. For example: (1) John sat at the front seat. Subject Predication Predicate + Adverbial (of location) n. v. prep. art. adj. n. (constituency, structure & syntactic functions) B. Saussurean Linguistics Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The three lines along which Saussure’s ideas were developed: linguistics, sociology, and psychology. 1) In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney, who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasize that language is an institution. 2) In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held that language is one of the “social facts”, which are ideas in the “collective mind” of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts. 3) In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, who hypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called the unconscious. 3. Saussure’s key notions 1) Signifier vs. signified Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist
only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language. Generally, the signifier and the signified are related arbitrarily with each other 2)Langue vS parole For Saussure, langue is"absence"in the virtual world and parole is"presence"in the world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ systems are considered unstable and variable 3)Prescriptivism VS descriptivism Linguistic prescription is typically contrasted with the alternative approach linguistic description In linguistics, prescriptivism is the practice of championing one variety or manner of speaking of a language against another. It may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative effect or are of low aesthetic value. Linguistic prescriptivism includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what a particular society perceives is correct language, or to advise on effective communication Linguistic description(observation and explanation of how language exists and is actually used)establishes conceptual categories and notes grammatical patterns in common use without establishing formal usage rules. Description may even comment about normative rules, but does so without advocating for them 4)Paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relations Paradigmatic relations the relations of choice Syntagmatic relations: the relations of combination(chain) C. American Structuralism MERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of sYNchronic LINGuiStics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century 1. Early Period: Boas and Sa i Franz boas 1)Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. He al so proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture 2)In the Introduction to his Handbook of American Indian languages, Boas discussed the amework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the ound of lar ategories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. ii)Edward Sapir 1)Sapir defines language as""a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating deas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols 2)In discussing the relations between speech and meanings, Sapir holds that the association speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but nee relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that although they are intimately related, they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product: without
2 only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language. Generally, the signifier and the signified are related arbitrarily with each other. 2) Langue vs. parole For Saussure, langue is “absence” in the virtual world and parole is “presence” in the actual world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ actual systems are considered unstable and variable. 3) Prescriptivism vs. descriptivism Linguistic prescription is typically contrasted with the alternative approach linguistic description. In linguistics, prescriptivism is the practice of championing one variety or manner of speaking of a language against another. It may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value. Linguistic prescriptivism includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what a particular society perceives is correct language, or to advise on effective communication. Linguistic description (observation and explanation of how language exists and is actually used) establishes conceptual categories and notes grammatical patterns in common use without establishing formal usage rules. Description may even comment about normative rules, but does so without advocating for them. 4) Paradigmatic vs. syntagmatic relations Paradigmatic relations: the relations of choice Syntagmatic relations: the relations of combination (chain) C. American Structuralism AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1. Early Period: Boas and Sapir i) Franz Boas 1) Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. He also proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. 2) In the Introduction to his Handbook of American Indian Languages, Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. ii) Edward Sapir 1) Sapir defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”. 2) In discussing the relations between speech and meanings, Sapir holds that the association of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need not be, present. In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that although they are intimately related, they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product: without
language, thought is impossible 3)Sapir also noticed the universal features of language and thought that without language, there is no culture 2. Bloomfield,s Theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is Leonard Bloomfield. F Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHAVIOURISM, which is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Bloomfield exemplified his process of stimulus-response theory in an interesting way(see p 320) ① Three principles a. when one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual read accordingly b. the division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language c. the distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves (2 The well-known formula s→R Here S stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands fo the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction 3 Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticized traditional grammar @ As a textbook Bloomfield's Language started American structuralism as a school 3. Post- Bloomfieldian Linguistic Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistiscs further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict mpiricism. Post- Bloomfieldian linguistics focused on direct discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus Le. through i)Zellig S. Harris D)In his book, Harris gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the dIsCovery PROCEDURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization 2) Harris formulated a set of strict descriptive procedures which took the logic of distributional relations as the basis of structural analysis ii)Charles Hockett In addition to his contribution to phonemic, morphemic and grammatical analysis and to general linguistics and its relationship with other disciplines, Hockett offered a stimulating and spirited defiance of his structuralist views while questioning many of the basic and often seemingly unchallenged assumptions underlying transformational grammar. D. Transformational generative grammar(转换生成语法 1. The origin and development of TGG Transformational-Generative Grammar(TG Grammar) was first proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky. It has seen five stages of development
3 language, thought is impossible. 3) Sapir also noticed the universal features of language and thought that without language, there is no culture. 2. Bloomfield’s Theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is Leonard Bloomfield.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHAVIOURISM, which is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Bloomfield exemplified his process of stimulus-response theory in an interesting way (see p.320). ① Three principles: a. when one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual react accordingly. b. the division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language. c. the distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves. ② The well-known formula: S→ r … s→R Here S stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction. ③ Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticized traditional grammar. ④ As a textbook, Bloomfield’s Language started American structuralism as a school of thought. 3. Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistiscs further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism. Post- Bloomfieldian linguistics focused on direct observation: a grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data, i.e. through discovery procedures. i) Zellig S. Harris 1) In his book, Harris gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the DISCOVERY PROCEDURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization. 2) Harris formulated a set of strict descriptive procedures which took the logic of distributional relations as the basis of structural analysis. ii) Charles Hockett In addition to his contribution to phonemic, morphemic and grammatical analysis and to general linguistics and its relationship with other disciplines, Hockett offered a stimulating and spirited defiance of his structuralist views while questioning many of the basic and often seemingly unchallenged assumptions underlying transformational grammar. D. Transformational generative grammar（转换生成语法） 1. The origin and development of TGG Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG Grammar) was first proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky. It has seen five stages of development
O The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science 2 The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory SThe Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar 4 The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB)focuses discussion on government and binding 6 The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous thed 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 1)Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. he argues that childre en are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviourism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology 2)Chomsky's INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. 3)Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-make linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure 3. Generative grammar 1)By the notion of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means "a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences 2)Chomsky believes that"every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. A generative grammar does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings 3)Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on. They are the OBSERVATIONAL ADEQUACY level, the DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY level, and the EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY level 4)Chomsky insists on the HYPOTHESIS-DEDUCTION method and his research is called evaluation process. TG method can not only describe the surface structure of a sentence, but also interpret the internal grammatical relationships within a sentence 4. The classical theor 1)The Classical Theory is characterized by three features: emphasis on generative ability of language:@2 introduction of transformational rules; and 3 grammatical description regardless of meaning 2)Chomsky puts forward three kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational gI O A finite state grammar is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of paratus, can generate an infinite number of sentences 2 The PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR, the second model put forward by Chomsky consists solely of phrase-structure(PS)rules that formalize some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis. The phrase structure rules are showed on the page of 330) Here, take "S- NP+ VP for example. The arrow means"can be rewritten as". Phrase
4 ① The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. ② The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. ③The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. ④ The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding ⑤ The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory. 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 1) Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviourism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology. 2) Chomsky’s INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. 3) Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure. 3. Generative Grammar 1) By the notion of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means “a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences”. 2) Chomsky believes that “every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.” A generative grammar does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings. 3) Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on. They are the OBSERVATIONAL ADEQUACY level, the DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY level, and the EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY level. 4) Chomsky insists on the HYPOTHESIS-DEDUCTION method and his research is called evaluation process. TG method can not only describe the surface structure of a sentence, but also interpret the internal grammatical relationships within a sentence. 4. The Classical Theory 1) The Classical Theory is characterized by three features: ① emphasis on generative ability of language; ② introduction of transformational rules; and ③ grammatical description regardless of meaning 2) Chomsky puts forward three kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar. ① A finite state grammar is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of apparatus, can generate an infinite number of sentences………………. ② The PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR, the second model put forward by Chomsky, consists solely of phrase-structure (PS) rules that formalize some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis.(The phrase structure rules are showed on the page of 330) Here, take “S → NP + VP” for example.The arrow means “can be rewritten as”. Phrase
structure rules are also called rewriting rules. The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another. These rules can be represented by bracketing and tree diagramming 3 Chomsky lists sixteen transformational rules for English. Chomsky has distinguished transformational rules into two kinds: obligatory and optional. The transformational of auxiliaries es are o bligatory, and the transformation of negation, the passive voice, etc are optional The reason for different types of sentences is that they have experienced different transformation 5. The Standard Theory Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic phonological and semantic 2 The relationships of the three components: The syntactic component can be called the base component, which consists of re-writing rules and the lexicon. It is the re-writing rules that generate the deep structure of the sentence, and the transformational rules, in turn, transform the deep structure into surface structure. The semantic component makes semantic interpretations on the deep structure, and the phonological component makes phonological interpretations on the surface structure. The Standard Theory improved a lot on the Classical Theory 6. The Extended Standard Theory 1)In the Extended Standard Theory, Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice. The first revision is called the"Extended Standard Theory"(EST). The second revision is called the "Revised Extended Standard Theory"(REST 2) In his first revision of the Standard Theory, Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure 2 Chomsky's second revision involves the whole theoretical framework, which can be illustrated by the diagram on the page of 336. The most remarkable change is that Chomsky now completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure. And, accordingly, from semantic interpretative rules is derived logical form representation. Hence, semantics was left out of the domain of synta 7. The Government and Binding(GB) Theory: Chomskys TG Grammar entered the fourth period of development with the theory of GOVERNMENT AND BINDING(GB). It consists of X-bar Theory, Government Theor Binding Theory and so on. The theory of GB directs our attention to a new orientation, i.e. the empty category (EC). Chomsky believes that through the empty category, we can further get to know about the mechanism of language 8. The minimalist Program O The Minimalist Program is characterized by several remarkable changes 2 Chomsky holds that the initial states of human languages are the same whereas the states of acquiring different languages are not. A universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states, and particular grammars are theories for studying the states of acquisition. Chomsky puts forward the strongest minimalist thesis: Linguistic mechanism is the ideal solution to the problem The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers, and the Minimalist Program and the minimalist Inquiries are just some logical steps in this process. TG Grammars aims and purposes have been
5 structure rules are also called rewriting rules. The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another. These rules can be represented by bracketing and tree diagramming. ③ Chomsky lists sixteen transformational rules for English. Chomsky has distinguished transformational rules into two kinds: obligatory and optional. The transformational of auxiliaries and particles are obligatory, and the transformation of negation, the passive voice, etc. are optional. The reason for different types of sentences is that they have experienced different transformational processes. 5. The Standard Theory ① Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic, phonological and semantic. ② The relationships of the three components: The syntactic component can be called the base component, which consists of re-writing rules and the lexicon. It is the re-writing rules that generate the deep structure of the sentence, and the transformational rules, in turn, transform the deep structure into surface structure. The semantic component makes semantic interpretations on the deep structure, and the phonological component makes phonological interpretations on the surface structure. The Standard Theory improved a lot on the Classical Theory. 6. The Extended Standard Theory 1) In the Extended Standard Theory, Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice. The first revision is called the “Extended Standard Theory” (EST). The second revision is called the “Revised Extended Standard Theory” (REST). 2) ① In his first revision of the Standard Theory, Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure. ② Chomsky’s second revision involves the whole theoretical framework, which can be illustrated by the diagram on the page of 336.The most remarkable change is that Chomsky now completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure. And, accordingly, from semantic interpretative rules is derived logical form representation. Hence, semantics was left out of the domain of syntax. 7. The Government and Binding (GB) Theory: Chomsky’s TG Grammar entered the fourth period of development with the theory of GOVERNMENT AND BINDING (GB). It consists of X-bar Theory, Government Theory, Binding Theory and so on.The theory of GB directs our attention to a new orientation, i.e. the empty category (EC). Chomsky believes that through the empty category, we can further get to know about the mechanism of language. 8. The Minimalist Program ① The Minimalist Program is characterized by several remarkable changes. ② Chomsky holds that the initial states of human languages are the same whereas the states of acquiring different languages are not. A universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states, and particular grammars are theories for studying the states of acquisition. Chomsky puts forward the strongest minimalist thesis: Linguistic mechanism is the ideal solution to the problem of legibility conditions. The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers, and the Minimalist Program and the Minimalist Inquiries are just some logical steps in this process. TG Grammar’s aims and purposes have been
consistent, i.e. to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge on language E. C: ase grammaR (格语法) 1)Case Grammar is a type of generative approach that stresses the relationship of elements in sentence. The grammar takes the verb as the most important part of the sentence, marking th relationships between the verb with various noun phrases as"cases 2)Fillmore's argument is based on the assumptions that syntax should be central in the determination of case and that covert categories are important The various ways in which cases occur in simple sentences define sentence types and verb types of a language 3)Case Grammar shows clear semantic relevance of notions such as agency, causation, location, advantage to someone, etc. These are easily identifiable across languages, and are held by many psychologists to play an important part in child language acquisition. For example (2)The student solved problems with a calculator in the classroom this morning 其中, solve为中心动词, student为施事格, problems为对象格, calculator为工具格, 为场所格, morning为时间格 F. Tagmemics(法位学) For Kenneth Pike, all languages have three interrelated hierarchies: phonological grammatical, and referential. On each level of the three hierarchies, there are four linguistic units having the four following features: Slot, Class, Role, and Cohesion. Their definitions and the relation formula(diagram) can be seen on the page of 323. Each of the four components in the diagram is called a cell. Some tagmemes are obligatory and are marked by"+, while optional tagmemes are marked by The ultimate aim of tagmemics is to provide a theory which integrates lexical, grammatical, and phonological information G. Stratificational Grammar(层次语法) 1. Sydney McDonald Lamb developed his theory in a model consisting of three levels, or STRATA: phoneme, morpheme, and MORPHOPHONEME. This laid the foundation for his stratificational grammar 2. Lamb regards language not in term of the elements that comprise it but rather as a system of relationships. He says that linguistic analysis can perhaps best be understood as a process of simplifying. It is a process that involves both simplification and generalization 3. Lamb claims that language, by its nature, relates sound to meaning, and vice versa, and while the relationship is complex it can be seen as series of connected stratal systems or strata. Among various strata, the four principal ones are the sememic, lexemic, morphemic, and the phonemic, from top to bottom. And every item of each stratum is composed of smaller"-on"units semon,“ lexon”," morphon”, and"phonon 4. For Stratificational Grammar, the various relations in a language are realized by three patterns in the relational network: the alternation pattern, the tactic pattern, and the sign pattern 5. Stratificational analysis seems to give a better account of the relations between sound and meaning. Lamb's theory aims to know about the language system in the human mind. Thus, he named his theory as COGNITIVE STRATIFICATIONAL THEORY. Later on, Lamb distinguished his theory with term NEUROCOGNITIVE LINGUISTICS H. Generative semantics(生成语义学) 1. Generative Semantics was developed as a reaction to Chomskys syntactic-based TG ammar. This theory considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure Linguists working within this theory hold that there is no principled distinction between syntactic
6 consistent, i.e. to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge on language. E. Case grammar（格语法） 1) Case Grammar is a type of generative approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. The grammar takes the verb as the most important part of the sentence, marking the relationships between the verb with various noun phrases as “cases”. 2) Fillmore’s argument is based on the assumptions that syntax should be central in the determination of case and that covert categories are important. The various ways in which cases occur in simple sentences define sentence types and verb types of a language. 3) Case Grammar shows clear semantic relevance of notions such as agency, causation, location, advantage to someone, etc. These are easily identifiable across languages, and are held by many psychologists to play an important part in child language acquisition.For example: (2)The student solved problems with a calculator in the classroom this morning. 其中，solve 为中心动词，student 为施事格，problems 为对象格，calculator 为工具格， classroom 为场所格，morning 为时间格。 F. Tagmemics（法位学） For Kenneth Pike, all languages have three interrelated hierarchies: phonological, grammatical, and referential. On each level of the three hierarchies, there are four linguistic units having the four following features: Slot, Class, Role, and Cohesion. Their definitions and the relation formula (diagram) can be seen on the page of 323. Each of the four components in the diagram is called a cell. Some tagmemes are obligatory and are marked by “+”, while optional tagmemes are marked by “－”.The ultimate aim of tagmemics is to provide a theory which integrates lexical, grammatical, and phonological information. G. Stratificational Grammar (层次语法) 1. Sydney McDonald Lamb developed his theory in a model consisting of three levels, or STRATA: phoneme, morpheme, and MORPHOPHONEME. This laid the foundation for his stratificational grammar. 2. Lamb regards language not in term of the elements that comprise it but rather as a system of relationships. He says that linguistic analysis can perhaps best be understood as a process of simplifying. It is a process that involves both simplification and generalization. 3. Lamb claims that language, by its nature, relates sound to meaning, and vice versa, and while the relationship is complex it can be seen as series of connected stratal systems or strata. Among various strata, the four principal ones are the sememic, lexemic, morphemic, and the phonemic, from top to bottom. And every item of each stratum is composed of smaller “-on” units: “semon”, “lexon”, “morphon”, and “phonon”. 4. For Stratificational Grammar, the various relations in a language are realized by three patterns in the relational network: the alternation pattern, the tactic pattern, and the sign pattern. 5. Stratificational analysis seems to give a better account of the relations between sound and meaning. Lamb’s theory aims to know about the language system in the human mind. Thus, he named his theory as COGNITIVE STRATIFICATIONAL THEORY. Later on, Lamb distinguished his theory with term NEUROCOGNITIVE LINGUISTICS. H. Generative semantics (生成语义学) 1. Generative Semantics was developed as a reaction to Chomsky’s syntactic-based TG Grammar. This theory considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure. Linguists working within this theory hold that there is no principled distinction between syntactic
processes and semantic processes. This notion was accompanied by a number of subsidiary hypotheses. (I The purely syntactic level of deep structure posited by Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965)cannot exist. @2 The initial representations of derivations are logical representations identical from language to language. 3 All aspects of meaning are representable arker form. In other words. the derivation of a sentence is a direct transf mapping from semantics to surface structure. 2. While Generative Semantics is no longer regarded as a viable grammatical model, it is important in a number of ways. (1 It was generative semanticists that started an intensive investigation of syntactic phenomena which defied formalization by means of transformational rules.@2 Many proposals originally disputed by generative semanticists have since appea the interpretivist literature. The important initial studies which Generative Semantics inspired on various topics are becoming more and more appreciated L Montague grammar(蒙太古语法 Montague grammar is an approach to natural language semantics, named after American logician Richard Montague. The Montague grammar is based on formal logic, especially higher order predicate logic and lambda calculus, and makes use of the notions of intensional logic, via Kripke models. Montague pioneered this approach in the 1960s and early 1970s Montague's thesis was that natural languages(like English) and formal languages (like programming languages) can be treated in the same way: There is in my opinion no important theoretical difference between natural languages and the artificial languages of logicians: indeed, I consider it possible to comprehend the syntax and sem antics of both kinds of language within a single natural and mathematically precise theory. On this point I differ from a number of philosophers, but agree, I believe, with Chomsky and his associates. (Universal Grammar 1970) J. Generalized Phrase structure grammar(广义短语结构语法) Generalized phrase structure grammar(GPSG) is a framework for describing the syntax and semantics of natural languages. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar. GPSG was initially developed in the late 1970s by Gerald Gazdar. Other contributors include, Ivan Sag, and Geoffrey Pullum. Their book Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, published in 1985, is the main monograph on GPSG, especially as it applies to English syntax One of the chief goals of GPSG is to show that the syntax of natural languages can be described by context-free grammars(written as ID/LP grammars), with some suitable conventions intended to make writing such grammars easier for syntacticians. Among these conventions are a sophisticated feature structure sy stem and so-called"meta-rules", which are rules generating the reductions of a context-free grammar. GPSG further augments syntactic descriptions with semantic annotations that can be used to compute the compositional meaning of a sentence from its syntactic derivation tree. However, it has been argued(for example by) that these extensions require parsing algorithms of a higher order of computational complexity than those used for basic CFGs. Gerald Gazdar, and many other syntacticians, have since argued that natural languages cannot in fact be adequately described by CFGs gPsg is in part a reaction against transformational theories of syntax. In fact, the notational extensions to context-free grammars developed in GPSG are claimed to make transformations redundant. Most of the syntactic innovations of GPSG were subsequently incorporated into head-driven phrase structure grammar K.Head- driven phrase structure grammar(中心语驱动短语结构语法)
7 processes and semantic processes. This notion was accompanied by a number of subsidiary hypotheses. ① The purely syntactic level of deep structure posited by Chomsky’s Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) cannot exist. ② The initial representations of derivations are logical representations identical from language to language. ③ All aspects of meaning are representable in phrase-marker form. In other words, the derivation of a sentence is a direct transformational mapping from semantics to surface structure. 2. While Generative Semantics is no longer regarded as a viable grammatical model, it is important in a number of ways. ① It was generative semanticists that started an intensive investigation of syntactic phenomena which defied formalization by means of transformational rules. ② Many proposals originally disputed by generative semanticists have since appeared in the interpretivist literature. ③ The important initial studies which Generative Semantics inspired on various topics are becoming more and more appreciated. I. Montague Grammar（蒙太古语法） Montague grammar is an approach to natural language semantics, named after American logician Richard Montague. The Montague grammar is based on formal logic, especially higher order predicate logic and lambda calculus, and makes use of the notions of intensional logic, via Kripke models. Montague pioneered this approach in the 1960s and early 1970s. Montague's thesis was that natural languages (like English) and formal languages (like programming languages) can be treated in the same way:There is in my opinion no important theoretical difference between natural languages and the artificial languages of logicians; indeed, I consider it possible to comprehend the syntax and semantics of both kinds of language within a single natural and mathematically precise theory. On this point I differ from a number of philosophers, but agree, I believe, with Chomsky and his associates. (Universal Grammar 1970) J. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar（广义短语结构语法） Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG) is a framework for describing the syntax and semantics of natural languages. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar. GPSG was initially developed in the late 1970s by Gerald Gazdar. Other contributors include, Ivan Sag, and Geoffrey Pullum. Their book Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, published in 1985, is the main monograph on GPSG, especially as it applies to English syntax. One of the chief goals of GPSG is to show that the syntax of natural languages can be described by context-free grammars (written as ID/LP grammars), with some suitable conventions intended to make writing such grammars easier for syntacticians. Among these conventions are a sophisticated feature structure system and so-called "meta-rules", which are rules generating the productions of a context-free grammar. GPSG further augments syntactic descriptions with semantic annotations that can be used to compute the compositional meaning of a sentence from its syntactic derivation tree. However, it has been argued (for example by) that these extensions require parsing algorithms of a higher order of computational complexity than those used for basic CFGs. Gerald Gazdar, and many other syntacticians, have since argued that natural languages cannot in fact be adequately described by CFGs.GPSG is in part a reaction against transformational theories of syntax. In fact, the notational extensions to context-free grammars developed in GPSG are claimed to make transformations redundant. Most of the syntactic innovations of GPSG were subsequently incorporated into head-driven phrase structure grammar. K. Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar（中心语驱动短语结构语法）
Head-driven phrase structure grammar(HPSG)is a highly lexicalized, non-derivational generative grammar theory developed by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar, and it is the immediate successor to generalized phrase structure grammar. HPSG draws from other fields such as computer science( data type theory and knowledge representation) and uses Ferdinand de saussures notion of the sign. It uses a uniform formalism and is organized in a modular way which makes it attractive for natural language processing An HPSG grammar includes principles and grammar rules and lexicon entries which are normally not considered to belong to a grammar. The formalism is based on lexicalism. This means that the lexicon is more than just a list of entries, it is in itself richly structured. Individual entries are marked with types. Types form a hierarchy. Early versions of the grammar were very lexical ized with few grammatical rules(schema). More recent research has tended to add more and richer rules, becoming more like construction grammar. The basic type HPSG deals with is the sign. Words and phrases are two different subtypes of sign. A word has two features:/PHON/(the sound, the phonetic form)and/SYNSEM/(the syntactic and semantic information), both of which are split into sub-features. Signs and rules are formalized as typed feature structures 0.1.2 Functionalism L Definition Functional linguistics focuses on the analysis of the communicative functions of language rather than the language itself. For example at the front Participant Process Circumstance The N I Background Focus IL. Representative theories A. Lexical- functional grammar(词汇功能语法 Lexical functional grammar(LFG) is a grammar framework in theoretical linguistics, a variety of generative grammar. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a pendency gramma The development of the theory was initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald Kaplan in the 1970s, in reaction to the direction research in the area of transformational grammar had begun to take. It mainly focuses on syntax, including its relation with morphology and semantics. There has been little Lfg work on phonology(although ideas from optimality theory have recently been popular in LFG LFG views language as being made up of multiple dimensions of structure. Each of these dimensions is represented as a distinct structure with its own rules, concepts, and form. For example, in the sentence The old woman eats the falafel, the c-structure analysis is that this is a sentence which is made up of two pieces, a noun phrase(NP)and a verb phrase (VP). The VP is itself made up of two pieces, a verb (V) and another NP. The NPs are also analyzed into their parts
8 Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) is a highly lexicalized, non-derivational generative grammar theory developed by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar, and it is the immediate successor to generalized phrase structure grammar. HPSG draws from other fields such as computer science (data type theory and knowledge representation) and uses Ferdinand de Saussure's notion of the sign. It uses a uniform formalism and is organized in a modular way which makes it attractive for natural language processing. An HPSG grammar includes principles and grammar rules and lexicon entries which are normally not considered to belong to a grammar. The formalism is based on lexicalism. This means that the lexicon is more than just a list of entries; it is in itself richly structured. Individual entries are marked with types. Types form a hierarchy. Early versions of the grammar were very lexicalized with few grammatical rules (schema). More recent research has tended to add more and richer rules, becoming more like construction grammar. The basic type HPSG deals with is the sign. Words and phrases are two different subtypes of sign. A word has two features: [PHON] (the sound, the phonetic form) and [SYNSEM] (the syntactic and semantic information), both of which are split into sub-features. Signs and rules are formalized as typed feature structures. 0.1.2 Functionalism I. Definition Functional linguistics focuses on the analysis of the communicative functions of language rather than the language itself. For example: (3) John sat at the front seat. Participant Process Circumstance Theme Rheme Given New Topic Comment Background Focus Ground Figure …… II. Representative theories A. Lexical-functional grammar （词汇功能语法） Lexical functional grammar (LFG) is a grammar framework in theoretical linguistics, a variety of generative grammar. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar. The development of the theory was initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald Kaplan in the 1970s, in reaction to the direction research in the area of transformational grammar had begun to take. It mainly focuses on syntax, including its relation with morphology and semantics. There has been little LFG work on phonology (although ideas from optimality theory have recently been popular in LFG research). LFG views language as being made up of multiple dimensions of structure. Each of these dimensions is represented as a distinct structure with its own rules, concepts, and form.For example, in the sentence The old woman eats the falafel, the c-structure analysis is that this is a sentence which is made up of two pieces, a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). The VP is itself made up of two pieces, a verb (V) and another NP. The NPs are also analyzed into their parts
Finally, the bottom of the structure is composed of the words out of which the sentence is constructed. The f-structure analysis, on the other hand, treats the sentence as being composed of attributes, which include features such as number and tense or functional units such as subject predicate, or object B Systemic functional grammar M. A.K. Halliday's Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such anguage teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistic, and machine translation Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR 1. Systemic Grammar O The central component of a systemic grammar is a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specification of the relationships between choices (2 Six different aspects between Systemic Grammar and other linguistic theories B In Systemic Grammar, the notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, the whole of language being conceived as a"system of sy stems". The SYSTEM is a list of choi that are available in the grammar of a language. A system is a list of things between which possible to choose. The items in a system are called optional 4 Three essential characteristics of all systems ⑤ Entry conditions 6 Simultaneity: There is another kind of relationship possible between systems, that of SIMULTANEITY. A system is simultaneous with another system if it is independent of the other system but has the same entry conditions as the other system O Delicacy and Scale of Delicacy: Delicacy refers to the dimension which recognizes increasing depth of detail. We can arrange systems on a scale according to the fineness of the distinction This scale is called SCALE OF DELICACY 8 Realization Relationships: When meanings are expressed, people are intentionally making choices in the system network. On this basis, choice is meaning. Halliday believes that there are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning(on the semantic level)is realized by the choice of the"form"(on the level of lexicogrammar); the choice of the"form"is realized by the choice of""on the phonological level. In Systemic Grammar, the relations of realization are represented by an arrow" 2. Functional Grammar Hallidays Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, that is, "the interpretation of the grammatical patterns in terms of configurations of functions". Halliday defines a functional grammar as"essentially a'natural grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained ultimately, by reference to how language is used" For Halliday, there are three meta-functions of language: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions The Ideational Function a Definition: The IDEATIONAL FUNCTION (EXPERIENTIAL and"LOGICAL )is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to hearer. The ideational function is a meaning potential b. The ideational function mainly consists of" transitivity"and"voice". This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural
9 Finally, the bottom of the structure is composed of the words out of which the sentence is constructed. The f-structure analysis, on the other hand, treats the sentence as being composed of attributes, which include features such as number and tense or functional units such as subject, predicate, or object. B.Systemic Functional Grammar M. A. K. Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistic, and machine translation.Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR. 1. Systemic Grammar ① The central component of a systemic grammar is a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specification of the relationships between choices. ② Six different aspects between Systemic Grammar and other linguistic theories. ③ In Systemic Grammar, the notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, the whole of language being conceived as a “system of systems”. The SYSTEM is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language. A system is a list of things between which it is possible to choose. The items in a system are called optional. ④ Three essential characteristics of all systems. ⑤ Entry conditions ⑥ Simultaneity: There is another kind of relationship possible between systems, that of SIMULTANEITY. A system is simultaneous with another system if it is independent of the other system but has the same entry conditions as the other system. ⑦ Delicacy and Scale of Delicacy: Delicacy refers to the dimension which recognizes increasing depth of detail. We can arrange systems on a scale according to the fineness of the distinction. This scale is called SCALE OF DELICACY. ⑧ Realization Relationships: When meanings are expressed, people are intentionally making choices in the system network. On this basis, choice is meaning. Halliday believes that there are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning (on the semantic level) is realized by the choice of the “form” (on the level of lexicogrammar); the choice of the “form” is realized by the choice of “substance” on the phonological level.In Systemic Grammar, the relations of realization are represented by an arrow “↘”. 2. Functional Grammar Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, that is, “the interpretation of the grammatical patterns in terms of configurations of functions”. Halliday defines a functional grammar as “essentially a ‘natural’ grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained, ultimately, by reference to how language is used”.For Halliday, there are three meta-functions of language: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions. ① The Ideational Function a. Definition: The IDEATIONAL FUNCTION (“EXPERIENTIAL” and “LOGICAL”) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to hearer. The ideational function is a meaning potential. b. The ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural
realizations c. Transitivity is simply the grammar of the clause in its ideational aspect. The transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of Process Types, including material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential processes 2 The Interpersonal Function a Definition: The INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express ocial and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. b. Interpersonal function is realized by MOOd and MODALITY Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment or making a prediction c. Mood is made up of two parts: the "Subject"and the"Finite element". The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause. Finite elements are tense morphemes, auxiliary verbs and modal verbs that express tense or modality, and they are part of the verb phrase d. Residue refers to the rest of the clause. It has three functional elements the Predicator”,“ Complement”,and“ Adjunct': The usual order in an English clause is Predicator Complement A Adjunct e. According to Halliday, two basic speech roles are giving and taking; in nterpersonal communications, two kinds of the commodities exchanged are oods-&-services and information. When the two variables are taken together, they define the four primary speech functions of offer, command, statement and question a. Definition: The TEXTUAL FUNCTION refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences b. Coherence and Cohesion(The example and explicit explanation on the page of 3 15-316 c. The textual function can also highlight certain parts of the text 4 The inseparable relation among these three functions According to Halliday, a clause is the simultaneous realization of ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. (The example and explicit explanation are on the page of 316) Here, we hould emphasize that a prerequisite to its effective operation under both ideational and interpersonal function what we have referred to as the textual function C. Cognitive grammar Cognitive grammar is a cognitive approach to language developed by Ronald Langacker which considers the basic units of language to be symbols or conventional pairings of a semantic structure with a phonological label. Grammar consists of constraints on how these units can be combined to generate larger phrases which are also a pairing of semantics and phonology. The semantic aspects are modeled as image schemas rather than propositions, and because of the tight binding with the label each can invoke the other. Langacker develops the central ideas of cognitive grammar in his seminal, two-volume Foundations of cognitive grammar, which became a major departure point for the emerging field of Cognitive Linguistics Like construction grammar(developed by Langacker's student Adele Goldberg), and unlike lany mainstream linguistic theories, cognitive grammar extends the notion of symbolic units to the grammar of languages. Langacker further assumes that linguistic structures are motivated by
10 realizations. c. Transitivity is simply the grammar of the clause in its ideational aspect. The transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of Process Types, including material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential processes. ② The Interpersonal Function a. Definition: The INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. b. Interpersonal function is realized by MOOD and MODALITY.Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgment or making a prediction. c. Mood is made up of two parts: the “Subject” and the “Finite element”. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause. Finite elements are tense morphemes, auxiliary verbs and modal verbs that express tense or modality, and they are part of the verb phrase. d. Residue refers to the rest of the clause. It has three functional elements: the “Predicator”, “Complement”, and “Adjunct”. The usual order in an English clause is “Predicator ^ Complement ^ Adjunct”. e. According to Halliday, two basic speech roles are giving and taking; in interpersonal communications, two kinds of the commodities exchanged are goods-&-services and information. When the two variables are taken together, they define the four primary speech functions of offer, command, statement and question. ③ The Textual Function a. Definition: The TEXTUAL FUNCTION refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. b. Coherence and Cohesion (The example and explicit explanation on the page of 315-316). c. The textual function can also highlight certain parts of the text. ④ The inseparable relation among these three functions According to Halliday, a clause is the simultaneous realization of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings. (The example and explicit explanation are on the page of 316) Here, we should emphasize that a prerequisite to its effective operation under both ideational and interpersonal function what we have referred to as the textual function. C. Cognitive grammar Cognitive grammar is a cognitive approach to language developed by Ronald Langacker, which considers the basic units of language to be symbols or conventional pairings of a semantic structure with a phonological label. Grammar consists of constraints on how these units can be combined to generate larger phrases which are also a pairing of semantics and phonology. The semantic aspects are modeled as image schemas rather than propositions, and because of the tight binding with the label, each can invoke the other. Langacker develops the central ideas of cognitive grammar in his seminal, two-volume Foundations of cognitive grammar, which became a major departure point for the emerging field of Cognitive Linguistics. Like construction grammar (developed by Langacker's student Adele Goldberg), and unlike many mainstream linguistic theories, cognitive grammar extends the notion of symbolic units to the grammar of languages. Langacker further assumes that linguistic structures are motivated by