西南大学：《系统功能语言学 Systemic Functional Linguistics》课程教学讲义_Part I The clause 04 Clause as exchange

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1 4. Clause as exchange 4.0 Lead-in Activities Review: The structural typology of English sentences: A. Major clauses vs. minor clauses B. Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, compound complex sentences C. Loose sentences vs. periodic sentences (1a) Now that winter has come, can spring be far behind? (PS) (1b) Can spring be far behind now that winter has come? (LS) I. Tell the functional typology of English sentences (i.e. The Mood System) Positive: Mary is happy. Declarative Indicative Negative: Mary is not happy. Yes-no question: Is Mary happy? Interrogative Tag question: Mary is happy, isn’t she? Alternative question: Is Mary happy or unhappy? WH-question: How is Mary feeling today? Positive: Please be happy. / Let’s be happy. Imperative Negative: Please do not be unhappy. / Let’s not be unhappy. Exclamative: What a happy girl Mary is! / How happy Mary is! II. Turn the following sentences (a) first into negative sentences, and (b) then into yes-no questions. (1) It is lovely weather today. (2) This material conducts electricity. (3) Many people will lose their jobs. (4) There is someone doing research in this field. 4.1 The nature of dialogue A. Clause as exchange Simultaneously with its organization as a message, the clause is also organized as an interactive event involving speaker (used here as a cover term for both speaker and writer), and audience. In the act of speaking, the speaker adopts for himself a particular role which he wishes him to adopt in his turn. For example, in asking a question, a speaker is taking on the role of seeker of information and requiring the listener to take on the role of supplier of the information demanded. For example: (1) Daughter: I’m scared because I’ve had an experience where Boof has bit me. Mother: When? Daughter: When I was young at Bay’s house, I was swimming and he jumped up and bit my bum. B. Speech roles and speech functions The most fundamental types of speech role, which lie behind all the more

specific types that we may eventually be able to recognize, are just two: (i) giv ing and (i) demanding For example (1)a. This material conducts electricity. b Does this material conduct electricity? The act of speaking can be called an interact: it is an exchange, in which giving implies receiving and demanding implies giving in response The dialogicity of communication( Bathkin) Table 4-1 Giving or demanding, goods-&-services or information Commodity exchanged role in exchange (a) goods-&-services (b)information ( giving °offe statement would you like this teapot hes giving her the teapot ( i) demand ing command give me that teapot what is he giving her? The semantic system of SPEECH FUNCTiON (see Figure 4-2 on page 108) Speech functions and responses(see Table 4-1 on page 108) Typical realizations in grammar of speech functions(see Table 4-2 on page 109) C. Clause as exchange and semogenesis In the life history of an individual child, the exchange of goods services, with language as the means, comes much earlier than the exchange of information: infants typically begin to use linguistic symbols to make commands and offers at about the age of nine months, whereas it may be as much as nine months to a year after that before they really learn to make statements and questions, going through various intermed iate steps along the way It is quite likely that the same sequence of developments took place in the early evolution of language in the human race, although that is something we can never know for certain It is not d ifficult to see why offering and requesting precede telling and asking when a child is first learning how to mean. Exchanging information is more complicated than exchanging goods services, because in the former the listener is being asked not merely to listen and do something but also to act out a verbal role-to confirm or deny, or to supply a missing piece of information 4.2 The mood element 4.2.1 Structure of the mood The component that is tossed back and forth in statements and questions is called the mood element, and it consists of two parts: the Subject, which is a nominal group, and (ii) the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group The remainder of the clause is called the residue (1)

2 specific types that we may eventually be able to recognize, are just two: (i) giving and (ii) demanding. For example: (1) a. This material conducts electricity. b. Does this material conduct electricity? The act of speaking can be called an interact: it is an exchange, in which giving implies receiving and demanding implies giving in response. The dialogicity of communication (Bathkin) Table 4-1 Giving or demanding, goods-&-services or information Commodity exchanged role in exchange (a) goods-&-services (b) information (i) giving ‘offer’ would you like this teapot ‘statement’ he’s giving her the teapot (ii) demanding ‘command’ give me that teapot! ‘question’ what is he giving her? The semantic system of SPEECH FUNCTION (see Figure 4-2 on page 108) Speech functions and responses (see Table 4-1 on page 108) Typical realizations in grammar of speech functions (see Table 4-2 on page 109) C. Clause as exchange and semogenesis In the life history of an individual child, the exchange of goods & services, with language as the means, comes much earlier than the exchange of information: infants typically begin to use linguistic symbols to make commands and offers at about the age of nine months, whereas it may be as much as nine months to a year after that before they really learn to make statements and questions, going through various intermediate steps along the way. It is quite likely that the same sequence of developments took place in the early evolution of language in the human race, although that is something we can never know for certain. It is not difficult to see why offering and requesting precede telling and asking when a child is first learning how to mean. Exchanging information is more complicated than exchanging goods & services, because in the former the listener is being asked not merely to listen and do something but also to act out a verbal role – to confirm or deny, or to supply a missing piece of information. 4.2 The Mood element 4.2.1 Structure of the Mood The component that is tossed back and forth in statements and questions is called the Mood element, and it consists of two parts: (i) the Subject, which is a nominal group, and (ii) the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group. The remainder of the clause is called the Residue. (1)

(16)你要小心哪 (17)你们别吵哇比较 (18)放下枪,举起手来! 语气助词的其他用法 (19)你听谁说的?别是谣言吧?(老舍) (20)咱们开会吧!(老舍) (21)水离堤面只一尺了。(袁静) (22)刚才我走着回来的,连车都没雇!(老舍) (23)他无非会念几句书罢了,并没有什么真本事。 (24)那还不知道,共产党是抗日的么。(袁静) (25)小水啊,你可是小人办大事,任务不轻啊!(袁静) (26)他呀,从根起的生性,一点不关心自己。(杨朔) (27)譬如喝茶吧,我的这位内兄最懂得喝茶,最讲究喝茶。(曹禺) 4.2.2 Meaning of Subject and Finite The Finite element, as its name implies, has the function of making the proposition finite. That is to say, it circumscribes it; it brings the proposition down to earth. so that it is something that can be argued about a good way to make something arguable is to give it a point of reference in the here and now and this is what the Finite does. It relates the proposition to its context in the speech event This can be done in one of the two ways. One is by reference to the time of speaking(i.e. primary tense); the other is by reference to the jud gment of the speak (i.e. modality ) For example ()An old man was crossing the road (4)It cant be true Primary tense means past, present, or future at the moment of speaking; it is time relative to“now Modality means likely or unlikely(if a proposition ) desirable or undesirable(if a proposal) What these have in common is interpersonal deixis: they locate the exchange within the semantic space that is opened up between speaker and listener With primary tense, the dimension is that of time: primary tense construes time nterpersonally, as defined by what is"present" to you and me at the time of sayi With modality the dimension is that of assessment: modality construes a region of uncertainty where I can express, or ask you to express, an assessment of the valid ity of what is being said Finiteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either One further feature which is essential concomitant of finiteness is polarity This is the choice between positive and negative In order for something to be arguable, it has to be specified for polarity: either"is or isnt"(proposition), either"do"or"dont(proposal)

4 （16）你要小心哪！（17）你们别吵哇！比较：（18）放下枪，举起手来！ F . 语气助词的其他用法（19）你听谁说的？别是谣言吧？（老舍）（20）咱们开会吧！（老舍）（21）水离堤面只一尺了。（袁静）（22）刚才我走着回来的，连车都没雇！（老舍）（23）他无非会念几句书罢了，并没有什么真本事。（24) 那还不知道，共产党是抗日的么。（袁静）（25) 小水啊，你可是小人办大事，任务不轻啊！（袁静）（26）他呀，从根起的生性，一点不关心自己。（杨朔）（27）譬如喝茶吧，我的这位内兄最懂得喝茶，最讲究喝茶。（曹禺） 4.2.2 Meaning of Subject and Finite The Finite element, as its name implies, has the function of making the proposition finite. That is to say, it circumscribes it; it brings the proposition down to earth, so that it is something that can be argued about. A good way to make something arguable is to give it a point of reference in the here and now; and this is what the Finite does. It relates the proposition to its context in the speech event. This can be done in one of the two ways. One is by reference to the time of speaking (i.e. primary tense); the other is by reference to the judgment of the speaker (i.e. modality). For example: (3) An old man was crossing the road. (4) It can’t be true. Primary tense means past, present, or future at the moment of speaking; it is time relative to “now”. Modality means likely or unlikely (if a proposition), desirable or undesirable (if a proposal). What these have in common is interpersonal deixis: they locate the exchange within the semantic space that is opened up between speaker and listener. With primary tense, the dimension is that of time: primary tense construes time interpersonally, as defined by what is “present” to you and me at the time of saying. With modality the dimension is that of assessment: modality construes a region of uncertainty where I can express, or ask you to express, an assessment of the validity of what is being said. Finiteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either temporal or modal. One further feature which is essential concomitant of finiteness is polarity. This is the choice between positive and negative. In order for something to be arguable, it has to be specified for polarity: either “is” or “isn’t” (proposition), either “do” or “don’t” (proposal)

Thus the Finite element, as well as expressing primary tense and modality, also realized either positive or negative polarity For a summary of finite verbal operators, see Table 4-4 on age 116 4.2.2.3 A further note on the Subject The Subject in English has got a distinct identity, which can be established if we adopt a trinocular perspectiv From below, it is the nominal element(nominal group or nominal ized phrase clause)that is picked up by the Finite(operator)to form the Mood tag From round about it is that which constitutes the unmarked Theme if the mood is declarative, and which switches place with the Finite if the mood is yes/no Interrogative From above, it is that carries the modal responsibility; that is, responsibility for the valid ity of what is being predicated(stated, questioned, commanded or offered)in the clause 4.3 Other elements of mood structure 4.3.1 Structure of the residue The Residue consists of functional elements of three kinds one predicator. one or two Complements, and an indef inite number of (up to, in principle, seven) Adjuncts For example Sister susie sewing shirts for sold iers Finite Predicator Complement Adjunct Mood Residue 4.3.1.1 Predicator The Predicator is present in all major clauses, except those where it is displaced ell It is realized by a verbal group minus the temporal or modal operator, which functions as finite in the mood element The Pred icator is thus non-finite: and there are non-finite clauses containing a Pred icator but no finite element The function of the predicator is fourfold It specifies time reference other than reference to the time of the speech event, that is, "secondary"tense: past, present or future relative to the primary tense It specifies various other aspects and phases such as seeming, trying, hoping (iii) It specifies the voice: active or passive (iv)It specifies the process(action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of the Subject 4.3.1. 2 Complement A Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of bein Subject but is not; in other words, it is an element that has the potential for being given the interpersonally elevated status of modal responsibil ity -something that can be the nub of the argument It is typically realized by a nominal group. For example (1) The duke gave my aunt that teapot It will be noted that the Complement in Sfg covers what are objects as well as

5 Thus the Finite element, as well as expressing primary tense and modality, also realized either positive or negative polarity. For a summary of finite verbal operators, see Table 4-4 on age 116. 4.2.2.3 A further note on the Subject The Subject in English has got a distinct identity, which can be established if we adopt a trinocular perspective. From below, it is the nominal element (nominal group or nominalized phrase or clause) that is picked up by the Finite (operator) to form the Mood tag. From round about, it is that which constitutes the unmarked Theme if the mood is declarative, and which switches place with the Finite if the mood is yes/no interrogative. From above, it is that carries the modal responsibility; that is, responsibility for the validity of what is being predicated (stated, questioned, commanded or offered) in the clause. 4.3 Other elements of Mood structure 4.3.1 Structure of the Residue The Residue consists of functional elements of three kinds: one Predicator, one or two Complements, and an indefinite number of (up to, in principle, seven) Adjuncts. For example: 4.3.1.1 Predicator The Predicator is present in all major clauses, except those where it is displaced through ellipsis. It is realized by a verbal group minus the temporal or modal operator, which functions as Finite in the Mood element. The Predicator is thus non-finite; and there are non-finite clauses containing a Predicator but no Finite element. The function of the Predicator is fourfold. (i) It specifies time reference other than reference to the time of the speech event, that is, “secondary” tense: past, present or future relative to the primary tense. (ii) It specifies various other aspects and phases such as seeming, trying, hoping. (iii) It specifies the voice: active or passive. (iv) It specifies the process (action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of the Subject. 4.3.1.2 Complement A Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject but is not; in other words, it is an element that has the potential for being given the interpersonally elevated status of modal responsibility – something that can be the nub of the argument. It is typically realized by a nominal group. For example: (1) The duke gave my aunt that teapot. It will be noted that the Complement in SFG covers what are “objects” as well as Sister Susie ’s sewing shirts for soldiers Subject Finite Predicator Complement Adjunct Mood Residue

what are"complements"in the trad itional school grammar 4.3.1.3 Adjunct Co An Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential of being Subject; that is,it nnot be elevated to the interpersonal status of modal responsibility This means that arguments cannot be constructed around those elements that serve as Adjuncts; in experiential terms, they can be constructed around participants, either actually, as Subject, or potentially, as Complement Three degrees of interpersonal"elevation?"in the clause(see Fig 4-8 on page 124 An Adjunct is typically realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase (rather than a nominal group). For example (1) My aunt was given that teapot yesterday by the duke The typical order of elements in the Residue is Pred icator A Complement(s) Adjunct(s) But Adjuncts and Complements can occur thematically, either with WH-element in an interrogative clause or as marked Theme in a declarative clause This does not mean that it becomes part of the Mood element; it is still with the Residue. As a result, the Residue is split into two parts; it becomes discontinuous. For example (1)That teapot the duke had given to my aunt last year. (see Fig. 4-10 on page 4.3.2 Interpersonal Adjuncts A Metafunction and type of Adjunct: circumstantial Adjuncts, modal Adjuncts and conjunctive Adjuncts(see Table 4-6 on page 125) B System of modal Adjuncts(see Fig. 4-11 4.3.2.1 Mood Adjuncts Mood Adjuncts are closely associated with the meanings construed by the mood system: modality and temporality, and also intensity This means that their neutral position in the clause is next to the Finite verbal operator, either before or just after it. But there are two other possible locations: before the Subject(ie. in thematic osition) and at the end of the clause as Afterthought Adjuncts(see Fig 4-12 on page 128) Adverbs serving as mood Adjuncts of temporality, morality and intensity(se Table 4-7, Table 4-8, Table 4-9 on pages 128-129 4.3.2.2 Comment Adjuncts Comment Adjuncts refer to the categories of Adjuncts construing prediction They are less closely related to the grammar of mood; they are restricted to indicative" clauses(those functioning as propositions), and express the speakers attitude either to the proposition as a whole or to the particular speech function In other words, the burden of the comment may be either ideational or Inte System of comment Adjuncts: the propositional (ideational) type and the

6 what are “complements” in the traditional school grammar. 4.3.1.3 Adjunct An Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential of being Subject; that is, it cannot be elevated to the interpersonal status of modal responsibility. This means that arguments cannot be constructed around those elements that serve as Adjuncts; in experiential terms, they can be constructed around participants, either actually, as Subject, or potentially, as Complement. Three degrees of interpersonal “elevation” in the clause (see Fig. 4-8 on page 124) An Adjunct is typically realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase (rather than a nominal group). For example: (1) My aunt was given that teapot yesterday by the duke. The typical order of elements in the Residue is: Predicator ^ Complement(s) ^ Adjunct(s). But Adjuncts and Complements can occur thematically, either with a WH-element in an interrogative clause or as marked Theme in a declarative clause. This does not mean that it becomes part of the Mood element; it is still with the Residue. As a result, the Residue is split into two parts; it becomes discontinuous. For example: (1) That teapot the duke had given to my aunt last year. (see Fig. 4-10 on page 125) 4.3.2 Interpersonal Adjuncts A. Metafunction and type of Adjunct: circumstantial Adjuncts, modal Adjuncts, and conjunctive Adjuncts (see Table 4-6 on page 125) B. System of modal Adjuncts (see Fig. 4-11 on page 126) 4.3.2.1 Mood Adjuncts Mood Adjuncts are closely associated with the meanings construed by the mood system: modality and temporality, and also intensity. This means that their neutral position in the clause is next to the Finite verbal operator, either before or just after it. But there are two other possible locations: before the Subject (i.e. in thematic position) and at the end of the clause as Afterthought. System of mood Adjuncts (see Fig. 4-12 on page 128) Adverbs serving as mood Adjuncts of temporality, morality and intensity (see Table 4-7, Table 4-8, Table 4-9 on pages 128-129) 4.3.2.2 Comment Adjuncts Comment Adjuncts refer to the categories of Adjuncts construing prediction, presumption and desirability. They are less closely related to the grammar of mood; they are restricted to “indicative” clauses (those functioning as propositions), and express the speaker’s attitude either to the proposition as a whole or to the particular speech function. In other words, the burden of the comment may be either ideational or interpersonal. System of comment Adjuncts: the propositional (ideational) type and the

speech-functional (interpersonal) type(see Fig. 4-13 on page 129) Examples of adverbs serving as comment Adjunct(see Table 4-10 on page 130) 4.3.3 Conjunctive Adjuncts Unlike modal Adjuncts, which are interpersonal in function, conjunctive Adjuncts are textual in function: they set up a contextualizing relationship with some other(typically preceding) portion of text The semantic basis of this contextualizing function is that of the logical-semantic relationships of expansion and cohesion -that is, without creating a structural link in the grammar between the two parts F Such men however seldom make ood husbands Subject Conjunctive Modal Finite Predicator Complement Ad junct Mood Residue 4.3.3 Vocatives and Expletives The vocative is an element that figures in the structure of the clause as exchange but outside the scope of the Mood and Residue It is also fairly mobile, occurring(a) thematically, (b) at the boundary between Theme and rheme (not usually between Mood and Adjuncts, oro clause-finally and with the same intonation patterns as the comment Adjuncts The vocative can accompany a clause of any mood, but it is relatively more in frequent"demanding clauses(interrogatives and imperatives)than in"giving "ones (declaratives ). For example (1) It's lovely darling (2) Thank you Craig so much for say ing so (3)Mum you're not enjoying your dinner, are you?-I am (4)You're not stupid, are you darling? (5)Mum, do you know where the scissors are? (6)What do you want darling? ()No, no, darling, that's- go the other way (8)Oh darling don t you worry; thats quite easily arranged (9)God, mine's terrific (10)And then there was a child crying in the background, so I was thinking" oh God, you know, this isn t the man (11) Now straight-straight - Jesus! OK; open the door 4.4 MOOD as system; further options The system network of mood (see Fig 4-15 on page 135) 4.4.1 WH-Interrogatives the In the interpersonal structure of the clause, WH-interrogatives function to specify entity that the questioner wishes to have supplied The WH-element is always conflated with one or another of the three functions Subject, Complement or Adjunct. (see Fig. 4-16, Fig. 4-17, and Fig. 4-18 on page 136)

7 speech-functional (interpersonal) type (see Fig. 4-13 on page 129) Examples of adverbs serving as comment Adjunct (see Table 4-10 on page 130) 4.3.3 Conjunctive Adjuncts Unlike modal Adjuncts, which are interpersonal in function, conjunctive Adjuncts are textual in function: they set up a contextualizing relationship with some other (typically preceding) portion of text. The semantic basis of this contextualizing function is that of the logical-semantic relationships of expansion and cohesion – that is, without creating a structural link in the grammar between the two parts. For example: Such men however seldom make good husbands Subject Conjunctive Adjunct Modal Adjunct Finite “present” Predicator “make” Complement Mood Residue 4.3.3 Vocatives and Expletives The vocative is an element that figures in the structure of the clause as exchange, but outside the scope of the Mood and Residue. It is also fairly mobile, occurring (a) thematically, (b) at the boundary between Theme and Rheme (not usually between Mood and Adjuncts), or © clause -finally; and with the same intonation patterns as the comment Adjuncts. The vocative can accompany a clause of any mood, but it is relatively more in frequent “demanding” clauses (interrogatives and imperatives) than in “giving” ones (declaratives). For example: (1) It’s lovely darling. (2) Thank you Craig so much for saying so. (3) Mum you’re not enjoying your dinner, are you? – I am. (4) You’re not stupid, are you darling? (5) Mum, do you know where the scissors are? (6) What do you want darling? (7) No, no, darling, that’s – go the other way. (8) Oh darling don’t you worry; that’s quite easily arranged. (9) God, mine’s terrific. (10) And then there was a child crying in the background, so I was thinking “oh God, you know, this isn’t the man.” (11) Now straight – straight – Jesus! OK; open the door. 4.4 MOOD as system; further options The system network of MOOD (see Fig. 4-15 on page 135) 4.4.1 WH-Interrogatives In the interpersonal structure of the clause, WH-interrogatives function to specify the entity that the questioner wishes to have supplied. The WH-element is always conflated with one or another of the three functions Subject, Complement or Adjunct. (see Fig. 4-16, Fig. 4-17, and Fig. 4-18 on page 136)

8 In addition, the WH-element may be conflated with an element from a clause that is projected by the WH-interrogative clause. For example: (1) How much chicken do you think I had Kate? – I don’t know darling. I know it’s hard to believe but I wasn’t watching. (2) So how many quarters do you reckon you could have? – I’ve had heaps. 4.4.2 Exclamatives These clauses have the WH- element what or how, in nominal or adverbial group. For example: (1) What a self-opinionated egomaniac that guy is! (2) What a wise man we have for the emperor! (3) How secretive you are! (4) How beautifully you make love! 4.4.3 Imperatives The imperative has a different system of PERSON from the indicative. Since the imperative is the mood for exchanging goods & services, its Subject is “you” or “me” or “you and me”. A. If we take a “second person’, “you” as the base form, an imperative clause displays the following paradigm: Unmarked for Marked for person Marked for polarity person or polarity Positive look YOU look DO look Negative DON’T look DON’T YOU look DO NOT look B. If we take a “first person’, “me” as the base form, an imperative clause displays the following paradigm: Unmarked for Marked for person Marked for polarity person or polarity Positive let me help LET me help DO let me help Negative DON’T let me object DON’T LET ME object LET ME NOTobject C. If we take a “first person’, “you and me” as the base form, an imperative clause displays the following paradigm: Unmarked for Marked for person Marked for polarity person or polarity Positive let’s look LET’s look DO let’s look Negative DON’T let’s look DON’T LET’S look LET’S NOT look Examples of imperative clauses (see Fig. 4-20 on page 140) 4.4.4 MOOD and TONE The primary tones of spoken English (see Table 4-11 on page 141) Key and tome related to different MOOD systems (see the summary on page 142) 4.5 Polarity and modality 4.5.1 Polarity Polarity refers to the opposition between positive and negative. The positive/negative opposition is one that is fairly certain to be

grammaticalized in every language, in association with the clause as propos ition or Typically the positive clause is formally unmarked, while the negative is realized by some additional element In English, it is realized by the word not located in the neighborhood of the verb The functional status of yes and no Yes and no are direct expressions of polarity, but they have more than one functional status (1) They may function as statement, either in answer to a question, acknowledgement to a statement, in undertaking of a command or in acceptance of offer.(see Fig 4-21 on page 145) (2)They tion as part of a te serve to signal that a new move is beg inning, often but not necessarily a new peaker's turn; they have no speech function of their own, and therefore merely brin about a switch. In this case, they are almost always phonolog ically weak. (see Fig 4-22 ()Yes may function as response to a call; it carries tonic prominence, typically on a rising tone, such as Paddy/-Yes? 4.5.2 Modality MODALITY expresses the speaker's judgment, or request of the judgment of the listener, on the status of what is being said. It is the choice concerning the intermed iate degrees, the various indeterminacy that fall in between yes and no, such as“ sometimes” or maybe The Modality system can be divided into two categori ( 0 Modalization(情态, In propositions) 1)degrees of probability: possibly / probably /certainly 2)degrees of usuality: sometimes /usually /always (i) Modulation(意态, in proposals) 1)Degrees of obligation(in command ) allowed to/supposed to/required to 2)Degrees of inclination(in offers) willing to/anxious to /determined to The lexicogrammatical realization of mOdaliTY The system of VALUE and POLaRiTY(see Fig 4-24 on page 149) The system network of MODALITY (see Fig 4-25 on page 150) 情态副词,也称为“语气副词”或“评注性副词” 多个情态动词连用的顺序是认知情态、道义情态、动力情态能愿动词:能愿动词,也叫“助动词”,是表示可能、必要、必然、意愿估价等意义的动词。例如: 表示可能:能能够会可可能可以得以表示意愿:愿意乐意情愿肯要愿想要要想敢敢于乐于表示必要:应应该应当得(dei)该当须得犯得着犯不着理当表示估价:值得便于难于难以易于能愿动词主要用在动词和形容词前面作状语,不能直接带体词性宾语。例如: 幸福和欢乐都是很脆弱的东西,一点风吹草动就能够影响它们

9 grammaticalized in every language, in association with the clause as proposition or proposal. Typically the positive clause is formally unmarked, while the negative is realized by some additional element. In English, it is realized by the word not located in the neighborhood of the verb. The functional status of yes and no Yes and no are direct expressions of polarity, but they have more than one functional status. (1) They may function as statement, either in answer to a question, in acknowledgement to a statement, in undertaking of a command or in acceptance of an offer. (see Fig. 4-21 on page 145) (2) They may function as part of a textual Theme. Here they are continuative and serve to signal that a new move is beginning, often but not necessarily a new speaker’s turn; they have no speech function of their own, and therefore merely bring about a switch. In this case, they are almost always phonologically weak. (see Fig. 4-22 on page 146) (3) Yes may function as response to a call; it carries tonic prominence, typically on a rising tone, such as Paddy! – Yes?. 4.5.2 Modality MODALITY expresses the speaker’s judgment, or request of the judgment of the listener, on the status of what is being said. It is the choice concerning the intermediate degrees, the various indeterminacy that fall in between yes and no, such as “sometimes” or “maybe”. The Modality system can be divided into two categories: (i) Modalization (情态，in propositions): 1) degrees of probability: possibly / probably / certainly 2) degrees of usuality: sometimes / usually / always (ii) Modulation (意态， in proposals) 1) Degrees of obligation (in command): allowed to / supposed to / required to 2) Degrees of inclination (in offers): willing to / anxious to / determined to The lexicogrammatical realization of MODALITY The system of VALUE and POLARITY (see Fig. 4-24 on page 149) The system network of MODALITY (see Fig. 4-25 on page 150) 情态副词，也称为“语气副词”或 “评注性副词” 多个情态动词连用的顺序是:认知情态、道义情态、动力情态。能愿动词：能愿动词，也叫“助动词”，是表示可能、必要、必然、意愿、估价等意义的动词。例如：表示可能：能能够会可可能可以得以表示意愿：愿意乐意情愿肯要愿想要要想敢敢于乐于表示必要：应应该应当得（dei）该当须得犯得着犯不着理当表示估价：值得便于难于难以易于能愿动词主要用在动词和形容词前面作状语，不能直接带体词性宾语。例如：幸福和欢乐都是很脆弱的东西，一点风吹草动就能够影响它们

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西南大学：《系统功能语言学 Systemic Functional Linguistics》课程教学讲义_Part I The clause 04 Clause as exchange