10. Beside the clause: intonation and rhythm 10.1 Introduction A. Phonology and Phonetics in the stratification oflanguage content semantics ontent: lexicogrammar expression: phonology B. The compositional hierarchy in English sound system tone group foot(rhythm group syllable (-hemisyllable) C. Foot and tone group All natural discourse in spoken English is made up of an unbroken succession of tone groups, and these in turn are made up of rhythm groups of feet Both the foot, and especially, the tone group play an important part in the onstruction of meaning the Such "prosodic patterns are found in every language, although both the patterns hemselves and their semantic load ing may differ significantly from one language to 10.2 Rhythm Natural speech in all language is highly rhythmic; it tends to have a regular beat But it may be rhythmic in different ways, depending on the language or There is a broad division into two kinds of rhythm in language: (i)sy llable rhythm, syllable-timing, and ( ii pedalian rhythm, or foot-timing (commonly called stress-timing ), although some languages fit more into one kind or the other while some languages are more a mixture of the two A. Syllable rhythm( or syllable- timing音节韵律或音节计时) In this type of rhythm, the tempo depends on the syllable(or a sub-sy llabic unit
1 10. Beside the clause: intonation and rhythm 10.1 Introduction A. Phonology and Phonetics in the Stratification of Language B. The compositional hierarchy in English sound system tone group foot (rhythm group) syllable (~hemisyllable) phoneme C. Foot and tone group All natural discourse in spoken English is made up of an unbroken succession of tone groups, and these in turn are made up of rhythm groups of “feet”. Both the foot, and especially, the tone group play an important part in the construction of meaning. Such “prosodic” patterns are found in every language, although both the patterns themselves and their semantic loading may differ significantly from one language to another. 10.2 Rhythm Natural speech in all language is highly rhythmic; it tends to have a regular beat. But it may be rhythmic in different ways, depending on the language. There is a broad division into two kinds of rhythm in language: (i) syllable rhythm, or syllable-timing, and (ii) pedalian rhythm, or foot-timing (commonly called stress-timing), although some languages fit more into one kind or the other while some languages are more a mixture of the two. A. Syllable rhythm (or syllable-timing 音节韵律或音节计时) In this type of rhythm, the tempo depends on the syllable (or a sub-syllabic unit
the mora短音节;摩拉), so that all syllables tend to be of roughly the same length Languages fitting into this type are usually those of fairly simple sy llable structure like Japanese and French B. Pedalian rhythm( (foot-timing, commonly called stress-timing音步韵律或 音步计时) In this type of rhythm the tempo depends on the foot(a unit consisting of one or more syllables), so that all feet tend to be of roughly the same length-which means of course that the syllables must vary in length, since a foot may consist of varying numbers of syllable If a foot with, say, four syllables is of about the same duration as a foot with one syllable, then each of the four must be shorter than the one English is a language that is markedly of this second type. It is clearly foot-ti rather than syllable-timed Sometimes the beat will be completely regular, or as regular as we can make it In natural speech, however, the tempo is not as regular as in counting or in childrens rhymes Nevertheless, there is a strong tendency in English for sal ient sy lables to occur at regular intervals. Speakers of English like their feet to be all roughly the same length It should be emphasized that, like all the other generalizations made in this book, this is a statement about what actually happens, subconsciously, in natural speech; it is not a"rule"of popular or school grammar to be assiduously followed -or rebelled against with a flourish of independence The tendency towards a regular beat is much more marked in casual, spontaneous conversation carried on at a constant speed a two-syllable foot will be about one -fifth as long again as a one-syllable foot(i.e. slightly longer, but nothing like twice as long ); a three-syllable foot will be longer again by a little bit less than a fifth; and so on. The proportion would work out something like the following Number of syllables in a foot 2 Relative duration of feet 1.2 14 This regularity is based on the descend ing" foot: that is, a foot with the beat beginning Theoretically, one could just as well analyze a stretch of discourse into" ascending feet, with the beat at the end but for English this will not work, because it is imposs ible to predict the relative duration of syllables that way. Moreover it does not correspond to the physiological facts A English is spoken in a succession of pulse with d iminishing air pressure on each James /James/ said to his/mother. Mother. "he/said. said/he/ The principle of the descending foot also makes it possible to predict the relative duration of the syllables within the foot, where there is more than one. But it can be clearly heard that the two-syllable foot is not simply divided into two equal parts The beat at the beg inning of the foot may be silent; we show the silent beat with a caret A. This is a common feather of verse rhythms, but it again is also characteristic of
2 the mora 短音节；摩拉), so that all syllables tend to be of roughly the same length. Languages fitting into this type are usually those of fairly simple syllable structure, like Japanese and French. B. Pedalian rhythm (foot-timing, commonly called stress-timing 音步韵律或 音步计时) In this type of rhythm the tempo depends on the foot (a unit consisting of one or more syllables), so that all feet tend to be of roughly the same length – which means, of course, that the syllables must vary in length, since a foot may consist of varying numbers of syllables. If a foot with, say, four syllables is of about the same duration as a foot with one syllable, then each of the four must be shorter than the one. English is a language that is markedly of this second type. It is clearly foot-timed rather than syllable-timed. Sometimes the beat will be completely regular, or as regular as we can make it. In natural speech, however, the tempo is not as regular as in counting or in children’s rhymes. Nevertheless, there is a strong tendency in English for salient syllables to occur at regular intervals. Speakers of English like their feet to be all roughly the same length. It should be emphasized that, like all the other generalizations made in this book, this is a statement about what actually happens, subconsciously, in natural speech; it is not a “rule” of popular or school grammar to be assiduously followed – or rebelled against with a flourish of independence. The tendency towards a regular beat is much more marked in casual, spontaneous conversation carried on at a constant speed, a two-syllable foot will be about one-fifth as long again as a one-syllable foot (i.e. slightly longer, but nothing like twice as long); a three-syllable foot will be longer again by a little bit less than a fifth; and so on. The proportion would work out something like the following: Number of syllables in a foot: 1 2 3 4 Relative duration of feet: 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 This regularity is based on the “descending” foot: that is, a foot with the beat at the beginning. Theoretically, one could just as well analyze a stretch of discourse into “ascending” feet, with the beat at the end; but for English this will not work, because it is impossible to predict the relative duration of syllables that way. Moreover it does not correspond to the physiological facts. English is spoken in a succession of pulse with diminishing air pressure on each. For example: James / James / said to his / mother, / “Mother,” he / said, said / he/ The principle of the descending foot also makes it possible to predict the relative duration of the syllables within the foot, where there is more than one. But it can be clearly heard that the two-syllable foot is not simply divided into two equal parts. The beat at the beginning of the foot may be silent; we show the silent beat with a caret ^. This is a common feather of verse rhythms; but it again is also characteristic of
spontaneous speech, which can tolerate up to two complete"silent feet " without the rhythm being lost. The rhythm is maintained subvocally in the speaker's-and also in the listener's consciousness 10.3 Tonicity The foot, then, is one of the units of English phonological structure. Each foot consists of a whole number of sy lables, which may be one or more than one, up to about six or seven as a maximum The foot is the rhythmic unit of the language. above the foot there is one higher constituent, which is the melodic unit of the language. This is generally referred to as the ToNe GRoUP(less commonly called"tone unit") Melody as a linguistic feature is called INTONATION. So the tone group is the it of intonate Each tone group consists of a whole number of feet, one or more than one; the maximum in natural speech is around ten or a dozen There is an important difference between the tone group and the foot as regards their function in the expression of meaning in English. The foot is not itself the realization of any semantic unit. This is not to say that variation in rhythm never by itself carries contrast in meaning; there are instances where it does, e. g. tell me when he (1)Tell me / when he /comes hypotactic projection inform me of the time of his(habitual) arrival (2) Tell me when he /comes hypotactic expansion "inform me at the time of his arrival Such contrasts are based on grammatical accent: interrogatives are accented, and hence embody a salient syllable, whereas relatives and conjunctives are not But there is no higher-level unit that is typically realized as one foot. In this respect the foot is like the syllable; it is a phonological constituent, but does not represent a constituent of any other kind The tone group on the other hand is not only a phonological constituent functions as the real ization of something else, namely a quantum or unit of information in the discourse Spoken discourse takes the form of a sequence of INFORMATION UNITS,one them g the other in unbroken succession with no pause or discontinuity between follo We mark the boundary of the tone group by a double slash l a apparently he /is/yes /A/a although I /dont really / know/ why / 10.4 Nature of the information unit An information unit does not correspond exactly to any unit in the clause The nearest grammatical unit is in fact the clause; and we can regard this as the unmarked or"default" cond ition: other things being equal, one information unit will be co-extensive with one clause But other things are often not equal. Thus a single clause may be mapped into two or more information units or a single information unit into two or more clause
3 spontaneous speech, which can tolerate up to two complete “silent feet” without the rhythm being lost. The rhythm is maintained subvocally in the speaker’s – and also in the listener’s consciousness. 10.3 Tonicity The foot, then, is one of the units of English phonological structure. Each foot consists of a whole number of syllables, which may be one or more than one, up to about six or seven as a maximum. The foot is the rhythmic unit of the language. Above the foot there is one higher constituent, which is the melodic unit of the language. This is generally referred to as the TONE GROUP (less commonly called “tone unit”). Melody as a linguistic feature is called INTONATION. So the tone group is the unit of intonation. Each tone group consists of a whole number of feet, one or more than one; the maximum in natural speech is around ten or a dozen. There is an important difference between the tone group and the foot as regards their function in the expression of meaning in English. The foot is not itself the realization of any semantic unit. This is not to say that variation in rhythm never by itself carries contrast in meaning; there are instances where it does, e.g. tell me when he comes: (1) Tell me / when he / comes hypotactic projection “inform me of the time of his (habitual) arrival (2) Tell me when he / comes hypotactic expansion “inform me at the time of his arrival” Such contrasts are based on grammatical accent: interrogatives are accented, and hence embody a salient syllable, whereas relatives and conjunctives are not. But there is no higher-level unit that is typically realized as one foot. In this respect the foot is like the syllable; it is a phonological constituent, but does not represent a constituent of any other kind. The tone group on the other hand is not only a phonological constituent; it also functions as the realization of something else, namely a quantum or unit of information in the discourse. Spoken discourse takes the form of a sequence of INFORMATION UNITS, one following the other in unbroken succession with no pause or discontinuity between them. We mark the boundary of the tone group by a double slash: // ^ apparently he / is / yes / ^ / ^ although I / don’t really / know / why // 10.4 Nature of the information unit An information unit does not correspond exactly to any unit in the clause grammar. The nearest grammatical unit is in fact the clause; and we can regard this as the unmarked or “default” condition: other things being equal, one information unit will be co-extensive with one clause. But other things are often not equal. Thus a single clause may be mapped into two or more information units; or a single information unit into two or more clauses
Furthermore the boundaries may overlap with one information unit has to be set as a constituent in its own right At the same time, its relationship to the grammatical constituents is by no means random, and instances of overlapping boundaries are clearly "marked", so the two constituent structures, the grammatical and the informational, are closely interconnected The information unit is what its name implies: a unit of informati already known or pred ictable and what is new or unpredictable sion between what is Information, in this technical grammatical sense, is the tension between what is In the idealized form each information unit consists of a given element accompanied by a New element But there are two cond itions of departure from this principle. One is that discourse has to start somewhere, so there can be discourse- initiating units consisting of a New element only. The other is that by its nature the given is like to be"phonic"-referring to something already present in the verbal or non-verbal context; and one way of achieving phoricity is through ellipsis, a grammatical form in which certain features are not realized in the structure The way this structure is real ized is essentially"natural"(non-arbitrary ) in two (i The New is marked by prominence (i)The Given typically precedes the New 10.5 Meaning of given and new Given means what is treated by the speaker as recoverable whereas New means what is not recoverable to the listener. There are a number of elements in language that are inherently "given"in sense that they are not interpretable except by reference to some previous mention some feature of the situation: anaphoric elements and deictic elements 10. 6 Given New and Theme t rheme There is a close semantic relationship between information structure and thematic structure Other things being equal, a speaker will choose the Theme from within what is Given and locate the focus the climax of the new somewhere within the rheme But although they are related, Given New and Theme rheme are not the same The Theme is what I, the speaker, chooses to take as my point of departure. The Given is what you, the listener, already know about or have accessible to you eme rheme is speaker-oriented, while Given New is But both are speaker-selected. It is the speaker who assigns both structures mapping one onto the other to give a composite texture to the discourse and thereby relate it to its environment At any point of the discourse process, there will have been build up a rich verbal and non-verbal env ironment for whatever is to follow; the speaker 's choices are made against the background of what has been said and what has happened before
4 Furthermore the boundaries may overlap, with one information unit has to be set up as a constituent in its own right. At the same time, its relationship to the grammatical constituents is by no means random, and instances of overlapping boundaries are clearly “marked”; so the two constituent structures, the grammatical and the informational, are closely interconnected. The information unit is what its name implies: a unit of information. Information, in this technical grammatical sense, is the tension between what is already known or predictable and what is new or unpredictable. In the idealized form each information unit consists of a Given element accompanied by a New element. But there are two conditions of departure from this principle. One is that discourse has to start somewhere, so there can be discourse-initiating units consisting of a New element only. The other is that by its nature the Given is like to be “phoric” – referring to something already present in the verbal or non-verbal context; and one way of achieving phoricity is through ellipsis, a grammatical form in which certain features are not realized in the structure. The way this structure is realized is essentially “natural” (non-arbitrary), in two respects: (i) The New is marked by prominence. (ii) The Given typically precedes the New. 10.5 Meaning of Given and New Given means what is treated by the speaker as recoverable whereas New means what is not recoverable to the listener. There are a number of elements in language that are inherently “given” in the sense that they are not interpretable except by reference to some previous mention or some feature of the situation: anaphoric elements and deictic elements. 10.6 Given + New and Theme + Rheme There is a close semantic relationship between information structure and thematic structure. Other things being equal, a speaker will choose the Theme from within what is Given and locate the focus, the climax of the New, somewhere within the Rheme. But although they are related, Given + New and Theme + Rheme are not the same thing. The Theme is what I, the speaker, chooses to take as my point of departure. The Given is what you, the listener, already know about or have accessible to you. Thus, Theme + Rheme is speaker-oriented, while Given + New is listener-oriented. But both are speaker-selected. It is the speaker who assigns both structures, mapping one onto the other to give a composite texture to the discourse and thereby relate it to its environment. At any point of the discourse process, there will have been build up a rich verbal and non-verbal environment for whatever is to follow; the speaker’s choices are made against the background of what has been said and what has happened before
The environment will often create local conditions which override the globally marked pattern of Theme within Given, New within Rheme 10.7T0 The principal grammatical system that is real ized by tone choice is that of KEY The term actually refers to a little network of choices all related to the system of Tone 1 and 2 Tone 3 Tone 4 and 5 Tone 5 10.8 Tonic and pretonic The phonological structure of the tone group (P i.e. obligatory Tonic, optionally preceded by Pre-tonic Each element T, P consists of at least one complete foot 10.9 Key A. Tone in the declarative clause In a declarative clause, the unmarked tone is tone 1(falling); this expresses a statement without other concomitant features. Other tones convey a statement with ertain add itional semantic features B. Tone in the interrogative clause In the WH-interrogative, the unmarked tone is tone 1. Tone 2 expresses the question more tentatively. But with the tonic on the WH-element, tone 2 is an echo In the yes-no interrogative, the unmarked tone is tone 2. Tone 1 expresses the question more peremptorily. Other tones are less common with interrogative clauses C. Tone in the imperative clause of"command"(in prohibition ), tone 1 being rather peremptory in the negative o and In an imperative clause, there are two unmarked tones, tone 1 for"command tone 3 for"inv itation". With negative, however, tone 3 is often used even in th In the "marked positive"imperative with do, the unmarked tone is tone 13, with the fall on do The other tone that occurs commonly with imperatives is tone 4, having the sense of“ at least” D. Tone in minor clauses Minor clauses have varied tones depending on their function Greetings tend to have tone 1 or tone 3, exclamations tone 5, calls(vocatives) have every possible tone in the language, with noticeable differences in meaning Many set phrases have one particular tone associated with them 10.10 Tone as expression of relationship in a unit complex In addition to its function in the expression of key, the system of melod ic contours the "tone system) also expresses certain logical relations between successive information units in a d iscourse
5 The environment will often create local conditions which override the globally unmarked pattern of Theme within Given, New within Rheme. 10.7 Tone The principal grammatical system that is realized by tone choice is that of KEY. The term actually refers to a little network of choices all related to the system of mood . Tone 1 and 2. Tone 3 Tone 4 and 5 Tone 5 Compound tones 10.8 Tonic and pretonic The phonological structure of the tone group is (P ^) T i.e. obligatory Tonic, optionally preceded by Pre-tonic. Each element T, P consists of at least one complete foot. 10.9 Key A. Tone in the declarative clause In a declarative clause, the unmarked tone is tone 1 (falling); this expresses a statement without other concomitant features. Other tones convey a statement with certain additional semantic features. B. Tone in the interrogative clause In the WH-interrogative, the unmarked tone is tone 1. Tone 2 expresses the question more tentatively. But with the tonic on the WH-element, tone 2 is an echo question. In the yes-no interrogative, the unmarked tone is tone 2. Tone 1 expresses the question more peremptorily. Other tones are less common with interrogative clauses. C. Tone in the imperative clause In an imperative clause, there are two unmarked tones, tone 1 for “command”, and tone 3 for “invitation”. With negative, however, tone 3 is often used even in the sense of “command” (in prohibition), tone 1 being rather peremptory in the negative. In the “marked positive” imperative with do, the unmarked tone is tone 13, with the fall on do. The other tone that occurs commonly with imperatives is tone 4, having the sense of “at least”. D. Tone in minor clauses Minor clauses have varied tones depending on their function. Greetings tend to have tone 1 or tone 3, exclamations tone 5, calls (vocatives) have every possible tone in the language, with noticeable differences in meaning. Many set phrases have one particular tone associated with them. 10.10 Tone as expression of relationship in a unit complex In addition to its function in the expression of key, the system of melodic contours (the “tone system”) also expresses certain logical relations between successive information units in a discourse
These two meanings are not as different as they might seem. Whereas"key"is the neaning of the tone in its paradigmatic env ironment, i.e. in association with other, non-tonal choices(those of mood), what we are describing now is the meaning of the tone in its syntagmatic environment, i.e. in succession with other tone choices (1) Tone Concord: sequences of two or more instances of the same tone. This the phonological realization of apposition between groups(paratactic elaboration) (2) Tone sequence: tone sequences 1-1, 3-1 and 4-1. A sequence of two semantically related clauses may be related in the grammar (a)cohesively,(b) paratactically,(c) hypotactically References [1] Bloomfield, L. 1911. The Indo-European palatals in Sanskrit []. The Americar Journal of philology 32(1): 36-57 [2] Bloomfield, L. 1925. On the sound-system of Central Algonquian [J]. language 1(4):130-156 [3] Boas, F. 1911. Handbook of American Indian languages (ol I)[M]. Wash ingte DC: Government Print Office(Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology) [4 Blutner, R,& Zeevat, H. 2004. Optimality Theory and Pragmatics /M Hampshire and New York: Palgrave Macmillan [5] Chomsky, N,& Halle, M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English [M]. New York Harper and Row [6 Clark, J, Yallop, C. 1995. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology [M London Blackwell Publishers Ltd [7 Couper-Kuhlen, E. 1986. An Introduction to English Prosody [ M. London Edward arnold 8]Couper-Kuhlen, E, Selting, M. 1996. Prosody in Conversation [M. London Cambridge University Press [9] Firth, J. R. 1948[1957. Sounds and prosodies [A]. In Transactions of the Psychological Society [C], 127-152. Reprinted in J.R. Firth, 1957[C1, 121-138 [10] Firth, J.R. 1957. Papers in Linguis tics 1934-1951 [C]. London: Oxford nivers [11] Fox, A. 2001. Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure: The Phonology of Suprasegmentals [M]. London: Oxford University Press [12] Gussenhoven, C,& Jacobs, H. 1998. Understanding Phonology [m]. London Edward arnold [13] Halle, M. 1959. The Sound Pattern of Russian [M]. The Hague: Mouton [14] Halle, M. 1962. Phonology in generative grammar [J] Word(18): 54-72 [15] Halliday, M.A.K. 1961[2002]. Categories of the theory of grammar [A]. In J J Webster, (Ed), On Grammar [C]. London: Continuum, 37-94 [16 Halliday, M.A. K. 1963 2007. Intonation in English grammar [A]. In J. J Webster, (Ed), Studies in English language [C]. London: Continuum, 264-286 [17]Halliday, M.A.K. 19662002]. Some notes on deep' grammar [A]. In J. J Webster, (Ed), On Grammar [C]. London: Continuum, 106-117
6 These two meanings are not as different as they might seem. Whereas “key” is the meaning of the tone in its paradigmatic environment, i.e. in association with other, non-tonal choices (those of mood), what we are describing now is the meaning of the tone in its syntagmatic environment, i.e. in succession with other tone choices. (1) Tone Concord: sequences of two or more instances of the same tone. This is the phonological realization of apposition between groups (paratactic elaboration). (2) Tone sequence: tone sequences 1-1, 3-1 and 4-1. A sequence of two semantically related clauses may be related in the grammar (a) cohesively, (b) paratactically, (c) hypotactically. References [1] Bloomfield, L. 1911. The Indo-European palatals in Sanskrit [J]. The American Journal of Philology 32(1): 36-57. [2] Bloomfield, L. 1925. On the sound-system of Central Algonquian [J]. Language 1(4): 130-156. [3] Boas, F. 1911. Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1) [M]. Washington, DC: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). [4] Blutner, R., & Zeevat, H. 2004. Optimality Theory and Pragmatics [M]. Hampshire and New York: Palgrave. Macmillan. [5] Chomsky, N., & Halle, M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English [M]. New York: Harper and Row. [6] Clark, J., & Yallop, C. 1995. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology [M]. London: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. [7] Couper-Kuhlen, E. 1986. An Introduction to English Prosody [M]. London: Edward Arnold. [8] Couper-Kuhlen, E., & Selting, M. 1996. Prosody in Conversation [M]. London: Cambridge University Press. [9] Firth, J. R. 1948[1957]. Sounds and prosodies [A]. In Transactions of the Psychological Society [C], 127-152. Reprinted in J. R. Firth, 1957 [C], 121-138. [10] Firth, J. R. 1957. Papers in Linguistics 1934-1951 [C]. London: Oxford University Press. [11] Fox, A. 2001. Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure: The Phonology of Suprasegmentals [M]. London: Oxford University Press. [12] Gussenhoven, C., & Jacobs, H. 1998. Understanding Phonology [M]. London: Edward Arnold. [13] Halle, M. 1959. The Sound Pattern of Russian [M]. The Hague: Mouton. [14] Halle, M. 1962. Phonology in generative grammar [J]. Word (18): 54-72. [15] Halliday, M. A. K. 1961[2002]. Categories of the theory of grammar [A]. In J. J. Webster, (Ed), On Grammar [C]. London: Continuum, 37-94. [16] Halliday, M.A.K. 1963 [2007]. Intonation in English grammar [A]. In J. J. Webster, (Ed), Studies in English language [C]. London: Continuum, 264-286. [17] Halliday, M. A. K. 1966[2002]. Some notes on ‘deep’ grammar [A]. In J. J. Webster, (Ed), On Grammar [C]. London: Continuum, 106-117
[18] Halliday, M.A.K. 1967 Intonation and Grammar in British English [M]. The Hague: Mouton [19]Halliday, M. A.K. 1970. A Course in Spoken English: Intonation [M]. London Oxford University Press [20] Halliday, M.A. K. 1973. Explorations in the Functions of language. London Edward Arnold [21 Halliday, M.A.K. 1978. Language as a Social Semiotic. The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning [M]. London: Edward and Arnold [22] Halliday, M. A.K. 1985a. An Introduction to Functional Grammar [M]. London Arnold [23]Halliday, M.A.K. 1985b. English intonation as a resource for discourse [J] Beitrage =ur Phonetik und Linguistik(48): 111-117 In J.J. Webster, (Ed ) 2003 Studies in English language [C]. London: Continuum, 287-292 [24]Halliday, M.A.K. 1992. A systemic interpretation of Peking syllable finals [A] In P. Tench(ed )[C], 104-121 [25] Halliday, M.A.K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar: 2nd ed [MI London arnold [26]Halliday, M. A. K. 2008. Complementarities in Language [M. Beijing: The Commercial Press [ 27Halliday, M. AK,& Matthiessen, C. M.I. M. 1999. Cons truing experience through meaning: a language-based approach to cognition [M]. London: Cassell 28 Halliday, M.A.K,& Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar: 3rd ed. London: Arnold [29] Hayes, B. 1989. Compensatory lengthening in moraic phonology [] Linguistic Inquiry(20)253-306 [30] Martin, J.R. 2004. Prosodic ' structure: grammar for negotiation [J]. A Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies 46(Special Issue on Systemic-functional Linguistics in Action): 41-82 [31] Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 1995. Lexicogrammatical Cartography: English Systems [M. Tokyo: International Language Sciences Publisher 32 McCarthy, J.,& Prince, A. 1986/1996. Prosodic Morphology [M. New Runswick, NJ: Rutgers University Center for Cognitive Science 33] McGregor, W.B. 1992. Towards a systemic account of Gooniyandi segm phonology [A]. In P. Tench(ed )[C] 19-43 [34] Nespor, M.,& Vogel, I. 1986. Prosodic Phonology [M]. Dordrecht: Foris Publications [5] Prince, A,& Smolensky, P. 1993/2004. Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar [M]. Oxford: Basil Blackwell / Rutgers University Center for Cognitive Science Technical Report 2 [36] Sapir, E. 1911. Some aspects of Nootka language and culture [J]. American Anthropologist(13): 15-28 [37 Tench, P.(Ed ) 1992. Studies in Systemic Phonology [c. London: Pinter Publishers
7 [18] Halliday, M. A. K. 1967. Intonation and Grammar in British English [M]. The Hague: Mouton. [19] Halliday, M. A. K. 1970. A Course in Spoken English: Intonation [M]. London: Oxford University Press. [20] Halliday, M.A.K. 1973. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold. [21] Halliday, M. A. K. 1978. Language as a Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning [M]. London: Edward and Arnold. [22] Halliday, M. A. K. 1985a. An Introduction to Functional Grammar [M]. London: Arnold. [23] Halliday, M. A. K. 1985b. English intonation as a resource for discourse [J]. Beitrage zur Phonetik und Linguistik (48): 111-117. In J. J. Webster, (Ed.). 2003. Studies in English language [C]. London: Continuum, 287-292. [24] Halliday, M. A. K. 1992. A systemic interpretation of Peking syllable finals [A]. In P. Tench (ed.) [C], 104-121. [25] Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd ed [M]. London: Arnold. [26] Halliday, M. A. K. 2008. Complementarities in Language [M]. Beijing: The Commercial Press. [27] Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 1999. Construing experience through meaning: a language-based approach to cognition [M]. London: Cassell Academic. [28] Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 3rd ed. London: Arnold. [29] Hayes, B. 1989. Compensatory lengthening in moraic phonology [J]. Linguistic Inquiry (20): 253-306. [30] Martin, J. R. 2004. Prosodic ‘structure’: grammar for negotiation [J]. A Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies 46 (Special Issue on Systemic-functional Linguistics in Action): 41-82. [31] Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 1995. Lexicogrammatical Cartography: English Systems [M]. Tokyo: International Language Sciences Publisher. [32] McCarthy, J., & Prince, A. 1986/1996. Prosodic Morphology [M]. New Vrunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Center for Cognitive Science. [33] McGregor, W. B. 1992. Towards a systemic account of Gooniyandi segmental phonology [A]. In P. Tench (ed.) [C], 19-43. [34] Nespor, M., & Vogel, I. 1986. Prosodic Phonology [M]. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. [35] Prince, A., & Smolensky, P. 1993/2004. Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar [M]. Oxford: Basil Blackwell / Rutgers University Center for Cognitive Science Technical Report 2. [36] Sapir, E. 1911. Some aspects of Nootka language and culture [J]. American Anthropologist (13): 15-28. [37] Tench, P. (Ed.). 1992. Studies in Systemic Phonology [C]. London: Pinter Publishers
[38 Tench, P. 1996. The Intonation Systems of English [M. London: Well ington [39] Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1969 [1939]. Principles of Phonology [m]. Trans. A.M Baltaxe. Berkeley: University of California Press [40] Van Der, H, Norval, S. 1988. Autosegmental Studies on Pitch Accent [M ordrecht foris public [41 Van Leeuwen, T. 1992. Rhythm and social context; accent and juncture in the speech of professional radio announcers [A]. In P.Tench(ed )[C] 231-262 [42] Watt, D. L. E. 1992. Instrumental analysis of English nuclear tones [A]. In P. Tench(ed )C] 135-160 [43]Watt, D. L. E. 1994. The Phonology and Semology of Intonation in English: An Instrumental and Sys temic Perspective [M]. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club Publications. Williams, E. 1971/1976. Underlying tone in Margi and Igbon [ J]. Linguistic Inquiry (): 463-484 [44] Young, D. 1992. English consonant clusters: a systemic approach [A]. In Tench P. (ed.)[C],44-69 [45]李兵,1998,优选论的产生、基本原理与应用凹,《现代外语》(3)。 [46]李兵,2007,《演化音系学—语音模式的产生》介评[J,《现代外语》(3)。 [47]马秋武,2010,音系研究的历史沿革回顾与反思,《外国语言文学》(1)。 [48]彭宣维,1997,音系组织的语篇特征。《重庆大学学报(社会科学版)》(4 75-81 [49]王理嘉,1991,《音系学基础》[M。北京:语文出版社。 [5O]王佐良、丁往道,1987,《英语文体学引论》[M]。北京:外语教学与研究 出版社
8 [38] Tench, P. 1996. The Intonation Systems of English [M]. London: Wellington House. [39] Trubetzkoy, N. S. 1969 [1939]. Principles of Phonology [M]. Trans. A. M. Baltaxe. Berkeley: University of California Press. [40] Van Der, H., & Norval, S. 1988. Autosegmental Studies on Pitch Accent [M]. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. [41] Van Leeuwen, T. 1992. Rhythm and social context; accent and juncture in the speech of professional radio announcers [A]. In P.Tench (ed.) [C], 231-262. [42] Watt, D. L. E. 1992. Instrumental analysis of English nuclear tones [A]. In P. Tench (ed.) [C], 135-160. [43] Watt, D. L. E. 1994. The Phonology and Semology of Intonation in English: An Instrumental and Systemic Perspective [M]. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club Publications.Williams, E. 1971/1976. Underlying tone in Margi and Igbon [J]. Linguistic Inquiry (7): 463-484. [44] Young, D. 1992. English consonant clusters: a systemic approach [A]. In Tench P. (ed.) [C], 44-69. [45] 李兵，1998，优选论的产生、基本原理与应用[J]，《现代外语》（3）。 [46] 李兵，2007，《演化音系学——语音模式的产生》介评[J]，《现代外语》（3）。 [47]马秋武，2010，音系研究的历史沿革:回顾与反思[J]，《外国语言文学》（1）。 [48] 彭宣维，1997，音系组织的语篇特征[J]。《重庆大学学报（社会科学版）》（4）： 75-81。 [49] 王理嘉，1991，《音系学基础》[M]。北京：语文出版社。 [50] 王佐良、丁往道，1987，《英语文体学引论》[M]。北京：外语教学与研究 出版社