The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 】Routledge Vol.36,No.2,ume2008,pp.221-226 Revisiting the Chinese Maritime Customs Service,1854-1950 Robert Bickers Could the range of interaction between the British Empire and China have been any wider?The British establishment in China encompassed a Crown Colony and leased territories,British-administered concessions and British-dominated settlements in key Chinese cities,a large naval presence on the coasts and major rivers,substantial financial investment,Christian missions and a commanding role in riverine and coastal navigation.A wide range of British state agencies were active:the Foreign and Colonial Office were both crucial,while the Admiralty,War Office and Treasury had important roles,and their own concerns and strategic considerations.The govern- ment of India had its own relationship with China,while other Dominions'relations, not least Australian,grew in complexity in the 1930s and afterwards.And,of course, Dominions relations with Chinese -as sojourners and migrants-developed much earlier,and often much more unhappily,than even the mainstream relationship between China and Britain.2 In fact a large swathe of the global Chinese diaspora and British Empire were all but coterminous:leading nationalist activists in the 1920s came back'to China from the British Caribbean;key entrepreneurs in rapidly developing twentieth-century Shanghai came back from Australia,or South- east Asia.All of this activity took place in an intensely competitive and intensely inter- nationalised context,which overall saw more intra-imperial compromise and collaboration than conflict,but which certainly saw intense bouts of conflict,not least in the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese war. There were various (sometimes competing)centres of power within the British China enterprise -the palatial legation in Peking,the Treasury and Threadneedle Street,Hong Kong's Government House -but one of the most highly visible was at the same time actually one of the most ambiguous -this was the Inspectorate General of the Imperial,later simply the Chinese,Maritime Customs Service (CMCS)in Peking (latterly in Shanghai and then Chongging).Between 1854 and 1943 this agency of the Chinese state was always headed by a Briton,and in 1898 the Foreign Office extracted a commitment from the Qing court's Zongli yamen (which managed foreign relations,and until 1906 managed the Customs)that Correspondence to:Professor Robert Bickers,School of Humanities,University of Bristol,11 Woodland Road, Bristol,BS8 ITB,UK.Email:robert.bickers@bristol.ac.uk ISSN0308-6534 print/1743-9329 online/08/020221-6 DOL:10.1080/03086530802180676C2008 Taylor&Francis
Revisiting the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854 –1950 Robert Bickers Could the range of interaction between the British Empire and China have been any wider? The British establishment in China encompassed a Crown Colony and leased territories, British-administered concessions and British-dominated settlements in key Chinese cities, a large naval presence on the coasts and major rivers, substantial financial investment, Christian missions and a commanding role in riverine and coastal navigation. A wide range of British state agencies were active: the Foreign and Colonial Office were both crucial, while the Admiralty, War Office and Treasury had important roles, and their own concerns and strategic considerations. The government of India had its own relationship with China, while other Dominions’ relations, not least Australian,1 grew in complexity in the 1930s and afterwards. And, of course, Dominions relations with Chinese – as sojourners and migrants – developed much earlier, and often much more unhappily, than even the mainstream relationship between China and Britain.2 In fact a large swathe of the global Chinese diaspora and British Empire were all but coterminous: leading nationalist activists in the 1920s came ‘back’ to China from the British Caribbean; key entrepreneurs in rapidly developing twentieth-century Shanghai came back from Australia, or Southeast Asia. All of this activity took place in an intensely competitive and intensely internationalised context, which overall saw more intra-imperial compromise and collaboration than conflict, but which certainly saw intense bouts of conflict, not least in the 1904–05 Russo-Japanese war. There were various (sometimes competing) centres of power within the British China enterprise – the palatial legation in Peking, the Treasury and Threadneedle Street, Hong Kong’s Government House – but one of the most highly visible was at the same time actually one of the most ambiguous – this was the Inspectorate General of the Imperial, later simply the Chinese, Maritime Customs Service (CMCS) in Peking (latterly in Shanghai and then Chongqing). Between 1854 and 1943 this agency of the Chinese state was always headed by a Briton, and in 1898 the Foreign Office extracted a commitment from the Qing court’s Zongli yamen (which managed foreign relations, and until 1906 managed the Customs) that The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History Vol. 36, No. 2, June 2008, pp. 221–226 Correspondence to: Professor Robert Bickers, School of Humanities, University of Bristol, 11 Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1TB, UK. Email: robert.bickers@bristol.ac.uk ISSN 0308-6534 print/1743-9329 online/08/020221–6 DOI: 10.1080/03086530802180676 # 2008 Taylor & Francis Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
222 R.Bickers a Briton would hold the position as long as British trade predominated.Although an American,L.K.Little,held the post during the last seven years of the foreign presence, the individuals most closely associated with the CMCS-Sir Robert Hart,Sir Francis Aglen and Sir Frederick Maze-were Britons,and the Customs was routinely per- ceived as the keystone to the British China enterprise.The papers in this issue make use of important newly opened central archives of the Customs to revisit key issues in the history of the Customs,but also to fill in some of the many existing gaps in our understanding of the service and its functions.One thing they clearly show overall was that,not only was British domination regularly contested,but the Customs itself as an agency of the Qing and republican states was also often limited in its ability to function. The Foreign Inspectorate of Customs grew out of the Taiping rebellion and the seizure of the Chinese walled city of Shanghai by the Xiaodaohui,the 'Small Swords' 6220 rebels.At this moment were laid the foundations of foreign municipal administration in Shanghai,the establishment of that administration's police force and the establish- ment of the Foreign Inspectorate.Half of the roughly 22,000 staff who subsequently served in the Customs between 1854 and 1950 were overseas nationals.A much higher proportion of its senior staff were.Born of contingent emergency,the Customs survived,prospered and grew.An agency of the Chinese state,it represented the outsourcing by the Qing to foreign expertise -and quotidian responsibility -of the ever-tricky business of dealing with foreign traders.(And foreign traders com- plained bitterly about it at the start.)It became,under Sir Robert Hart,a large and ambitious administration,undertaking projects to advance knowledge of Chinese society,culture,government and trade and also,through its statistical and publication programmes,generating data about the Chinese climate and products and,through its Medical Reports,the world uncovered by Customs surgeons.In 1896 it was placed in charge of the new Imperial Chinese Post Office which it ran until 1911.Its Marine Department mapped,lit and policed the Chinese coast.An unplanned spin-off of Customs activity was the cadre of former staff who became diplomats,journalists, China coast traders,Sinologists and so on.Lower-grade 'outdoor'staff predominated, but senior positions in the 'indoor'executive branch of the service were routinely staffed by foreigners until into the 1930s.New foreign recruitment ceased after 1927,barring contracted expert staff,but the service was,until the very end of the 1940s,still an anomaly.It was an agency of the Chinese state that was staffed by foreigners(20 per cent of the staff still in 1937),used English as a parallel official language (and a predominating one in most internal business)and in which, despite a very pronounced service ethos,staff sometimes forgot who exactly they were working for. In the late 1990s Hans van de Ven was alerted to the arrival at the Second Historical Archives of China of the core central records and historic archives of the Customs. Some 55,000 files from the Inspectorate General and the Marine Department had led a somewhat peripatetic existence since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in October 1949 and the termination shortly thereafter of the rump foreign presence in China.(The Foreign Inspectorate itself was concluded on Taiwan in
a Briton would hold the position as long as British trade predominated.3 Although an American, L. K. Little, held the post during the last seven years of the foreign presence, the individuals most closely associated with the CMCS – Sir Robert Hart, Sir Francis Aglen and Sir Frederick Maze – were Britons, and the Customs was routinely perceived as the keystone to the British China enterprise. The papers in this issue make use of important newly opened central archives of the Customs to revisit key issues in the history of the Customs, but also to fill in some of the many existing gaps in our understanding of the service and its functions. One thing they clearly show overall was that, not only was British domination regularly contested, but the Customs itself as an agency of the Qing and republican states was also often limited in its ability to function. The Foreign Inspectorate of Customs grew out of the Taiping rebellion and the seizure of the Chinese walled city of Shanghai by the Xiaodaohui, the ‘Small Swords’ rebels. At this moment were laid the foundations of foreign municipal administration in Shanghai, the establishment of that administration’s police force and the establishment of the Foreign Inspectorate.4 Half of the roughly 22,000 staff who subsequently served in the Customs between 1854 and 1950 were overseas nationals. A much higher proportion of its senior staff were. Born of contingent emergency, the Customs survived, prospered and grew. An agency of the Chinese state, it represented the outsourcing by the Qing to foreign expertise – and quotidian responsibility – of the ever-tricky business of dealing with foreign traders. (And foreign traders complained bitterly about it at the start.) It became, under Sir Robert Hart, a large and ambitious administration, undertaking projects to advance knowledge of Chinese society, culture, government and trade and also, through its statistical and publication programmes, generating data about the Chinese climate and products and, through its Medical Reports, the world uncovered by Customs surgeons.5 In 1896 it was placed in charge of the new Imperial Chinese Post Office which it ran until 1911. Its Marine Department mapped, lit and policed the Chinese coast. An unplanned spin-off of Customs activity was the cadre of former staff who became diplomats, journalists, China coast traders, Sinologists and so on. Lower-grade ‘outdoor’ staff predominated, but senior positions in the ‘indoor’ executive branch of the service were routinely staffed by foreigners until into the 1930s. New foreign recruitment ceased after 1927, barring contracted expert staff, but the service was, until the very end of the 1940s, still an anomaly. It was an agency of the Chinese state that was staffed by foreigners (20 per cent of the staff still in 1937), used English as a parallel official language (and a predominating one in most internal business) and in which, despite a very pronounced service ethos, staff sometimes forgot who exactly they were working for. In the late 1990s Hans van de Ven was alerted to the arrival at the Second Historical Archives of China of the core central records and historic archives of the Customs. Some 55,000 files from the Inspectorate General and the Marine Department had led a somewhat peripatetic existence since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949 and the termination shortly thereafter of the rump foreign presence in China. (The Foreign Inspectorate itself was concluded on Taiwan in 222 R. Bickers Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 223 January 1950,when Lester Little tendered his resignation.)Archival resources relating to the service were not absent prior to this re-discovery:Robert Hart's diaries and his correspondence with his London representative J.D.Campbell had been part- published.Frederick Maze donated substantial amounts of material to the National Maritime Museum and to the School of Oriental and African Studies.Other individual collections,or diplomatic archives,readily helped flesh out the picture that could be drawn from these,as did the fruits of the massive publication programme undertaken by the Customs,all of which informed a wide range of work on a subject that assumed a key place in understandings of Sino-foreign relations after the 1850s.The work was often Hart-or Maze-centric,however,or engaged most deeply with work on finance and empire (such as the Leith-Ross mission to China)and otherwise left much untouched.The new records,however,combined with local station archives which are also being unveiled,allow us to probe much further into the Chinese and inter- 6220 national place and impact of this peculiar institution.Although much of the nineteenth-century record went up in flames during the siege of the legations during the 1900 Boxer uprising,some 2,200 copies of records survived in stations, and were brought together in the 1930s.The remainder of the material at Nanjing covers the first half of the twentieth century,and does so without,as far as can be seen,any major gaps. The articles that follow draw on the new archive to explore the administrative prac- tices,high politics and ground-level activity of the Customs.They form part of a wider body of pioneering new research into the Inspectorate records that is currently underway.'In her article Catherine Ladds uses the substantial personnel data in the archive -there are at least 13,000 files on staff matters or individuals,with many more items in the routine correspondence of the service -to draw attention away from Hart and Maze,and also from notions that this was a white-collar service.She explores the place of the Customs in wider British Empire employment networks using records which offer a rich vein of material concerning individual decision- making and experiences.Weipin Tsai explores a facet of Customs activity largely elided in existing discussions except as an item on which was partly pegged the service of various foreign loans and indemnities-the Chinese Native (that is the internal)Customs Service,which was administered by the Maritime Customs from 1901 to 1931.Tsai provides in the Native Customs story both a case study of the accre- tion to Hart's service of new responsibilities(at the behest of both his Qing superiors, as well as as a result of foreign pressure),but also of the practical limits both to the effectiveness of the Customs and to the ability of the service to penetrate into local Chinese society,politics and society.Entrenched interest,language,existing practice and limited resource could all thwart the ambitions of the Foreign Inspectorate. Anne Reinhardt explores another facet of the successful contestation of the Customs through her discussion of the ways in which Upper Yangzi power holders successfully managed the threat posed by the service,and by foreign shipping,to their power bases. As well as administrative continuity over almost a century of Chinese history-most notably from the Qing state into the Guomindang republic after 1927-the Customs also had an extensive geographic reach and very often retained its structural integrity
January 1950, when Lester Little tendered his resignation.) Archival resources relating to the service were not absent prior to this re-discovery: Robert Hart’s diaries and his correspondence with his London representative J. D. Campbell had been partpublished. Frederick Maze donated substantial amounts of material to the National Maritime Museum and to the School of Oriental and African Studies. Other individual collections, or diplomatic archives, readily helped flesh out the picture that could be drawn from these, as did the fruits of the massive publication programme undertaken by the Customs, all of which informed a wide range of work on a subject that assumed a key place in understandings of Sino-foreign relations after the 1850s. The work was often Hart- or Maze-centric, however, or engaged most deeply with work on finance and empire (such as the Leith-Ross mission to China) and otherwise left much untouched.6 The new records, however, combined with local station archives which are also being unveiled, allow us to probe much further into the Chinese and international place and impact of this peculiar institution. Although much of the nineteenth-century record went up in flames during the siege of the legations during the 1900 Boxer uprising, some 2,200 copies of records survived in stations, and were brought together in the 1930s. The remainder of the material at Nanjing covers the first half of the twentieth century, and does so without, as far as can be seen, any major gaps. The articles that follow draw on the new archive to explore the administrative practices, high politics and ground-level activity of the Customs. They form part of a wider body of pioneering new research into the Inspectorate records that is currently underway.7 In her article Catherine Ladds uses the substantial personnel data in the archive – there are at least 13,000 files on staff matters or individuals, with many more items in the routine correspondence of the service – to draw attention away from Hart and Maze, and also from notions that this was a white-collar service. She explores the place of the Customs in wider British Empire employment networks using records which offer a rich vein of material concerning individual decisionmaking and experiences. Weipin Tsai explores a facet of Customs activity largely elided in existing discussions except as an item on which was partly pegged the service of various foreign loans and indemnities – the Chinese Native (that is the internal) Customs Service, which was administered by the Maritime Customs from 1901 to 1931. Tsai provides in the Native Customs story both a case study of the accretion to Hart’s service of new responsibilities (at the behest of both his Qing superiors, as well as as a result of foreign pressure), but also of the practical limits both to the effectiveness of the Customs and to the ability of the service to penetrate into local Chinese society, politics and society. Entrenched interest, language, existing practice and limited resource could all thwart the ambitions of the Foreign Inspectorate. Anne Reinhardt explores another facet of the successful contestation of the Customs through her discussion of the ways in which Upper Yangzi power holders successfully managed the threat posed by the service, and by foreign shipping, to their power bases. As well as administrative continuity over almost a century of Chinese history – most notably from the Qing state into the Guomindang republic after 1927 – the Customs also had an extensive geographic reach and very often retained its structural integrity The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 223 Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
224 R.Bickers despite civil war and invasion.Local power holders could find potential revenues being collected and despatched to their enemies-notably to the internationally recognised central Chinese state.In her exploration of militarist Liu Xiang's strategies to manage the Customs threat to his own advantage,the paper also tells us much about another front in the struggle to reassert Chinese sovereignty and roll back the 'unequal treaties' which China had accepted in the nineteenth century. The archive also helps us revisit the international politics of the service.There is extensive high-level correspondence with diplomats and politicians,about loans,trea- ties and,unsurprisingly,about foreign domination of the Customs.As well as des- patches and other correspondence to and from Hart,there are thirty-four letter books of Sir Francis Aglen's correspondence,while a very great proportion of the archive deals with the Customs under Maze and Little.Richard Horowitz revisits Robert Hart and high-level debates in London and China in 1900 in particular,and 6220 outlines what he clearly shows was a period of transition for the Customs and its foreign leadership.In the traumatic years after 1894 the Customs evolved from being an agency embedded in the Qing reform programme of the 1860s-80s,in which Hart was a key adviser to the Qing,to an institution strongly associated in Chinese eyes with the collection of foreign loan debts and the imposition of imperialist pressure and control.The shifting international climate in the era of the New Imperi- alism of the 1890s was one factor,but the ageing Robert Hart's actions and inaction, not least his failure to bring Chinese staff into the executive 'indoor'branch,were clearly also problems for the service.Although the Customs was an unusual constant in China's administrative landscape after 1854,it was still an evolving one,and Chinese attitudes towards it evolved too.Sir Frederick Maze was associated with unblocking the stasis characterising the Customs under Francis Aglen.However,the Customs nar- rative usually stops at Pearl Harbor-not least because Frederick Maze was removed from his position shortly thereafter in now-Japanese-occupied Shanghai,and his own paper records substantively cease.Robert Bickers uses the new archive,augmented with newly discovered private papers of Maze's successor L.K.Little,to flesh out the last years of British dominance and the post-1941 history of this British 'imperial cornerstone.Both papers offer correctives to the often hagiographical accounts inspired by Hart's supporters or by the shaping of the Maze archive.In particular both show how enmeshed the service was in Qing and Chinese political networks, and how much Hart and his successors relied on them. This collection sheds new light overall on the history of the Maritime Customs,a peculiar institution but not a unique one-it provided templates for other Chinese agencies,such as the Salt Gabelle-although it certainly deserved the key role allotted to it in writing on Sino-foreign relations.It provides corrective new pointers in par- ticular for understanding the relationship between the Customs and British Empire, and the place of the service in the Chinese state.There is more that needs to be done.A comparative perspective-often lacking more generally in work on treaty- port China,which falls easily into an exceptionalist rut -would be provided by work on other such peculiar institutions,in the Ottoman Empire,for example,not least in Anglo-French Egypt.While the papers here highlight the multi-national and
despite civil war and invasion. Local power holders could find potential revenues being collected and despatched to their enemies – notably to the internationally recognised central Chinese state. In her exploration of militarist Liu Xiang’s strategies to manage the Customs threat to his own advantage, the paper also tells us much about another front in the struggle to reassert Chinese sovereignty and roll back the ‘unequal treaties’ which China had accepted in the nineteenth century. The archive also helps us revisit the international politics of the service. There is extensive high-level correspondence with diplomats and politicians, about loans, treaties and, unsurprisingly, about foreign domination of the Customs. As well as despatches and other correspondence to and from Hart, there are thirty-four letter books of Sir Francis Aglen’s correspondence, while a very great proportion of the archive deals with the Customs under Maze and Little. Richard Horowitz revisits Robert Hart and high-level debates in London and China in 1900 in particular, and outlines what he clearly shows was a period of transition for the Customs and its foreign leadership. In the traumatic years after 1894 the Customs evolved from being an agency embedded in the Qing reform programme of the 1860s–80s, in which Hart was a key adviser to the Qing, to an institution strongly associated in Chinese eyes with the collection of foreign loan debts and the imposition of imperialist pressure and control. The shifting international climate in the era of the New Imperialism of the 1890s was one factor, but the ageing Robert Hart’s actions and inaction, not least his failure to bring Chinese staff into the executive ‘indoor’ branch, were clearly also problems for the service. Although the Customs was an unusual constant in China’s administrative landscape after 1854, it was still an evolving one, and Chinese attitudes towards it evolved too. Sir Frederick Maze was associated with unblocking the stasis characterising the Customs under Francis Aglen. However, the Customs narrative usually stops at Pearl Harbor – not least because Frederick Maze was removed from his position shortly thereafter in now-Japanese-occupied Shanghai, and his own paper records substantively cease. Robert Bickers uses the new archive, augmented with newly discovered private papers of Maze’s successor L. K. Little, to flesh out the last years of British dominance and the post-1941 history of this British ‘imperial cornerstone’. Both papers offer correctives to the often hagiographical accounts inspired by Hart’s supporters or by the shaping of the Maze archive. In particular both show how enmeshed the service was in Qing and Chinese political networks, and how much Hart and his successors relied on them. This collection sheds new light overall on the history of the Maritime Customs, a peculiar institution but not a unique one – it provided templates for other Chinese agencies, such as the Salt Gabelle – although it certainly deserved the key role allotted to it in writing on Sino-foreign relations. It provides corrective new pointers in particular for understanding the relationship between the Customs and British Empire, and the place of the service in the Chinese state. There is more that needs to be done. A comparative perspective – often lacking more generally in work on treatyport China, which falls easily into an exceptionalist rut – would be provided by work on other such peculiar institutions, in the Ottoman Empire, for example, not least in Anglo-French Egypt. While the papers here highlight the multi-national and 224 R. Bickers Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 225 especially the US presence in the Chinese Customs,the second biggest cadre of foreign employees came from Germany,and an alternative Customs powerbase was located in Tianjin for most of the period 1878-1905 under Commissioner Gustav Detring."The German story needs telling,as does the Japanese one.The archive in Nanjing has much more yet to tell us about intra-imperial competition and conflict in China,about the ordinary worlds of Customs men and women,and about the place of the Maritime Customs in Chinese history. Acknowledgements The work of all the contributors to this collection was supported to varying degrees, directly and indirectly,by the Arts&Humanities Research Council award,APN16, 296,The History of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service,1854-1949 6220 Notes [1]Strahan,Australia's China. [2]See Fitzgerald,Big White Lie. [3]The English text of the original agreement is in Documents Illustrative of the Origin,Development, and Activities of the Chinese Customs Service V,597-98. [4]Fairbank,Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast,452-63. [5]Three overviews are:Hamashita,Chugoku kindai keizaishi kenkyu (Economic history of modern China);Chen,Zhongguo jindai haiguan shi (History of the modern Chinese Customs);Lyons, China Maritime Customs and China's Trade Statistics. [6]On Hart:Wright,Hart and the Chinese Customs;Fairbank,Bruner and Matheson (eds),The I.G. in Peking Bruner,Fairbank and Smith (eds),Entering China's Service;Smith,Fairbank and Bruner(eds),Robert Hart and China's Modernization.On Maze:Brunero,Britain's Imperial Cor- nerstone in China;Atkins,Informal Empire in Crisis;Clifford,'Sir Frederick Maze and the Chinese Maritime Customs.On Leith-Ross:Endicott,Diplomacy and Enterprise,and on the role of the Customs in Leith-Ross's thinking,see,for example,Rothwell,'Mission of Sir Frederick Leith-Ross to the Far East,164-66. [7]Important projects in progress include van de Ven's'Breaking with the Past,and Bocking, "Tariffs,Power,Nationalism and Modernity. [8]van de Ven,'Robert Hart and Gustav Detring. References Atkins,Martyn.Informal Empire in Crisis:British Diplomacy and the Chinese Customs Succession, 1927-29.Ithaca,NY:Cornell East Asia Series,1995. Bocking,Felix."Tariffs,Power,Nationalism and Modernity:Fiscal Policy in Guomindang-Controlled China 1927-41.PhD diss.University of Cambridge,in progress. Bruner,Katherine Frost,John King Fairbank,and Richard J.Smith,eds.Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals,1854-63.Cambridge,MA:Harvard East Asian Monographs,1986. Brunero,Donna Maree.Britain's Imperial Cornerstone in China:The Chinese Maritime Customs Service,1854-1949.London:RoutledgeCurzon,2006. Chen Shiqi,Zhongguo jindai haiguan shi(History of the Modern Chinese Customs).Peking:Renmin chubanshe,2002
especially the US presence in the Chinese Customs, the second biggest cadre of foreign employees came from Germany, and an alternative Customs powerbase was located in Tianjin for most of the period 1878 –1905 under Commissioner Gustav Detring.8 The German story needs telling, as does the Japanese one. The archive in Nanjing has much more yet to tell us about intra-imperial competition and conflict in China, about the ordinary worlds of Customs men and women, and about the place of the Maritime Customs in Chinese history. Acknowledgements The work of all the contributors to this collection was supported to varying degrees, directly and indirectly, by the Arts & Humanities Research Council award, APN16, 296, ‘The History of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854–1949’. Notes [1] Strahan, Australia’s China. [2] See Fitzgerald, Big White Lie. [3] The English text of the original agreement is in Documents Illustrative of the Origin, Development, and Activities of the Chinese Customs Service V, 597–98. [4] Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast, 452–63. [5] Three overviews are: Hamashita, Chugoku kindai keizaishi kenkyu (Economic history of modern China); Chen, Zhongguo jindai haiguan shi (History of the modern Chinese Customs); Lyons, China Maritime Customs and China’s Trade Statistics. [6] On Hart: Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs; Fairbank, Bruner and Matheson (eds), The I. G. in Peking; Bruner, Fairbank and Smith (eds), Entering China’s Service; Smith, Fairbank and Bruner (eds), Robert Hart and China’s Modernization. On Maze: Brunero, Britain’s Imperial Cornerstone in China; Atkins, Informal Empire in Crisis; Clifford, ‘Sir Frederick Maze and the Chinese Maritime Customs’. On Leith-Ross: Endicott, Diplomacy and Enterprise; and on the role of the Customs in Leith-Ross’s thinking, see, for example, Rothwell, ‘Mission of Sir Frederick Leith-Ross to the Far East’, 164–66. [7] Important projects in progress include van de Ven’s ‘Breaking with the Past,’ and Bo¨cking, ‘Tariffs, Power, Nationalism and Modernity’. [8] van de Ven, ‘Robert Hart and Gustav Detring’. References Atkins, Martyn. Informal Empire in Crisis: British Diplomacy and the Chinese Customs Succession, 1927 –29. Ithaca, NY: Cornell East Asia Series, 1995. Bo¨cking, Felix. ‘Tariffs, Power, Nationalism and Modernity: Fiscal Policy in Guomindang-Controlled China 1927–41’. PhD diss. University of Cambridge, in progress. Bruner, Katherine Frost, John King Fairbank, and Richard J. Smith, eds. Entering China’s Service: Robert Hart’s Journals, 1854 –63. Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1986. Brunero, Donna Maree. Britain’s Imperial Cornerstone in China: The Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854 –1949. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2006. Chen Shiqi, Zhongguo jindai haiguan shi (History of the Modern Chinese Customs). Peking: Renmin chubanshe, 2002. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 225 Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
226 R.Bickers Clifford,Nicholas R.'Sir Frederick Maze and the Chinese Maritime Customs,1937-41.Journal of Modern History 37(1965):18-34. Documents Illustrative of the Origin,Development,and Activities of the Chinese Customs Service V.Shanghai:Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs,1939. Endicott,Stephen L.Diplomacy and Enterprise:British China Policy 1933-37.Manchester and Vancouver,BC:Manchester University Press,1975. Fairbank,John King.Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast:The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-54.Revd edn.Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press,1969.First published in 1953. Fairbank,John King,Katherine Frost Bruner,and Elizabeth Matheson,eds.The I.G.in Peking:Letters of Robert Hart,Chinese Maritime Customs,1868-1907,2 vols.Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,1975. Fitzgerald,John.Big White Lie:Chinese Australians in White Australia.Sydney:University of New South Wales Press,2007. Hamashita Takeshi,Chugoku kindai keizaishi kenkyu:Shinmatsu kaikan zaisei to kaikoujou shijouken (Economic History of Modern China:Maritime Customs Finance and Open Port Market 6220 Zones in Late Qing China).Tokyo:Tokyo Daigaku Toyo Bunka Kenkyujo,1989 Lyons,Thomas P.China Maritime Customs and China's Trade Statistics,1859-1948.Trumansburg, NY:Willow Creek,2003. Rothwell,V.H.The Mission of Sir Frederick Leith-Ross to the Far East,1935-36.Historical Journal, 18(1975):147-69. Smith,Richard J.,John King Fairbank,and Katherine Frost Bruner,eds.Robert Hart and China's Modernization:His Journals,1863-66.Cambridge,MA:Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1991. Strahan,Lachlan.Australia's China:Changing Perceptions from the 1930s to the 1990s.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1996. van de Ven,Hans.Robert Hart and Gustav Detring:Two Men in the Middle during the Boxer War. Modern Asian Studies 40(2006):631-62. -Breaking with the Past:Globalization and Chinese Modernity.Monograph in progress. Wright,Stanley F.Hart and the Chinese Customs.Belfast:Published for The Queen's University, Belfast,1950
Clifford, Nicholas R. ‘Sir Frederick Maze and the Chinese Maritime Customs, 1937 –41’. Journal of Modern History 37 (1965): 18–34. Documents Illustrative of the Origin, Development, and Activities of the Chinese Customs Service V. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, 1939. Endicott, Stephen L. Diplomacy and Enterprise: British China Policy 1933 –37. Manchester and Vancouver, BC: Manchester University Press, 1975. Fairbank, John King. Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842 –54. Revd edn. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969. First published in 1953. Fairbank, John King, Katherine Frost Bruner, and Elizabeth Matheson, eds. The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868 –1907, 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. Fitzgerald, John. Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007. Hamashita Takeshi, Chugoku kindai keizaishi kenkyu: Shinmatsu kaikan zaisei to kaikoujou shijouken (Economic History of Modern China: Maritime Customs Finance and Open Port Market Zones in Late Qing China). Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Toyo Bunka Kenkyujo, 1989. Lyons, Thomas P. China Maritime Customs and China’s Trade Statistics, 1859 –1948. Trumansburg, NY: Willow Creek, 2003. Rothwell, V. H. ‘The Mission of Sir Frederick Leith-Ross to the Far East, 1935 –36’. Historical Journal, 18 (1975): 147–69. Smith, Richard J., John King Fairbank, and Katherine Frost Bruner, eds. Robert Hart and China’s Modernization: His Journals, 1863 –66. Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1991. Strahan, Lachlan. Australia’s China: Changing Perceptions from the 1930s to the 1990s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. van de Ven, Hans. ‘Robert Hart and Gustav Detring: Two Men in the Middle during the Boxer War’. Modern Asian Studies 40 (2006): 631–62. ———. ‘Breaking with the Past: Globalization and Chinese Modernity’. Monograph in progress. Wright, Stanley F. Hart and the Chinese Customs. Belfast: Published for The Queen’s University, Belfast, 1950. 226 R. Bickers Downloaded By: [University of Bristol] At: 09:37 30 October 2009
