Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ●7 I concept learning ●7.1. I concept o A concept is a category under which specific elements may be grouped. e.g. a red ball, a red pencil, and a red chair are all instances of the simple concept "red" .An “ even number” is defined as any integer(整数) that is divisible by two without a remainder, and that an"odd number” is one that is not evenly均匀地) divisible by two Many concepts are far more complex and less well defined than the concept "red, the concepts such as justice, love, democracyare the ones that people may spend a lifetime trying to understand
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1 concept learning ⚫ 7.1.1 concept ⚫ A concept is a category under which specific elements may be grouped.e.g. a red ball, a red pencil, and a red chair are all instances of the simple concept “red”. An “even number” is defined as any integer（整数） that is divisible by two without a remainder, and that an “odd number” is one that is not evenly(均匀地） divisible by two. ⚫ Many concepts are far more complex and less well defined than the concept “red”, the concepts such as “justice, love, democracy”are the ones that people may spend a lifetime trying to understand
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts? o Concepts are generally learned in two ways. One way is to learn concepts by observation. Most concepts we learn outside of school are by this way. e.g. a child learns the concept, by hearing certain vehicles referred to as a"car". Initially, the child might include pickup trucks or motorcycles under the concept"car,, but as time goes on, the concept is refined until the child can clearly differentiate"car from“ noncar” o The other way is by definition
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts? ⚫ Concepts are generally learned in two ways. One way is to learn concepts by observation. Most concepts we learn outside of school are by this way. e.g. a child learns the concept “car” by hearing certain vehicles referred to as a “car”. Initially, the child might include pickup trucks or motorcycles under the concept “car”, but as time goes on, the concept is refined until the child can clearly differentiate “car” from “noncar”. ⚫ The other way is by definition
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts? o e.g. it is very difficult to learn the concepts “aunt”or“ uncle” by observation alone.One could observe hundreds of aunts and “ nonant” without deriving a clear concept of“aunt”. In this case, the concept is best learned by definition: To be an aunt, one must be a female whose brother or sister(or brother-or sister-in-lawhas children
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts? ⚫ e.g. it is very difficult to learn the concepts “aunt”or “uncle” by observation alone. One could observe hundreds of “aunts”and “nonaunts” without deriving a clear concept of “aunt”.In this case, the concept is best learned by definition: To be an aunt, one must be a female whose brother or sister(or brother-or sister-in-law)has children
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? O Just as concepts can be learned in two ways so can they be taught in two ways. o One way is called example-rule approach Students may be given instances and noninstances of a concept and later asked to derive or infer a definition o Other way is called rule-example approach Students may be given a definition and then asked to identify instances and noninstances
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ Just as concepts can be learned in two ways, so can they be taught in two ways. ⚫ One way is called example-rule approach. Students may be given instances and noninstances of a concept and later asked to derive or infer a definition. ⚫ Other way is called rule-example approach. Students may be given a definition and then asked to identify instances and noninstances
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? o For most concepts taught in school, it makes most sense to state a definition, present several instances (and noninstances), and then restate the definition, showing how the instances typify definition. This is called rule example-rule. e.g. "learning?"might be defined as"a change in an individual caused by experience Instances might include learning of skills, information, behaviors, and emotions. Noninstances might include maturational changes such as changes in behaviors or emotions caused by the onset of puberty(青春期) Finally, the definition might by restated and discussed in light of the instances and noninstances
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ For most concepts taught in school, it makes most sense to state a definition, present several instances(and noninstances), and then restate the definition, showing how the instances typify definition. This is called ruleexample-rule. e.g. “learning” might be defined as “a change in an individual caused by experience”. Instances might include learning of skills, information, behaviors, and emotions. Noninstances might include maturational changes, such as changes in behaviors or emotions caused by the onset of puberty（青春期）. Finally, the definition might by restated and discussed in light of the instances and noninstances
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ()use a lot of examples o Three rules when presenting examples of concepts: o Rule l: order the examples from easy to difiicult o Highly typical exemplars are likely to be the easiest for students to understand. e.g. A science teacher presenting examples of stars discusses the north Star before mentioning that our sun is also a star
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ (1) use a lot of examples ⚫ Three rules when presenting examples of concepts: ⚫ Rule 1: order the examples from easy to difficult. ⚫ Highly typical exemplars are likely to be the easiest for students to understand. e.g. A science teacher presenting examples of stars discusses the North Star before mentioning that our sun is also a star
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? o Rule 2: select examples that differ from one other The science teacher presenting the stars includes examples of both new and old stars. o Rule 3: compare and contrast examples and nonexamples. The examples of objects in space that are not stars include planets, our moon, and meteors流星)· The concept mammal, easy examples are dogs, cats and humans, and nonexamples are insects, reptiles(爬行动物), and fish. How about dolphins,, bats, snakes, and kangaroos?
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ Rule 2: select examples that differ from one other. The science teacher presenting the stars includes examples of both new and old stars. ⚫ Rule 3: compare and contrast examples and nonexamples. The examples of objects in space that are not stars include planets, our moon, and meteors(流星）. The concept mammal, easy examples are dogs, cats and humans, and nonexamples are insects,reptiles（爬行动物）, and fish.How about dolphins, bats, snakes, and kangaroos?
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? o(2)combine examples with definitions to encourage full understanding of a concept o We can begin with examples before presenting definitions of the concept, or present the definition first, then give examples. e.g. defining alliteration(#) as the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words, offering examples such as“ partridge(鹌鹑) in a pear tree”and“two turtle doves(菜包肉末饭)” o A synthesis of the two approaches would involve presenting the definition, followed by examples, followed by a reinforcement of the definition
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ (2) combine examples with definitions to encourage full understanding of a concept. ⚫ We can begin with examples before presenting definitions of the concept, or present the definition first,then give examples. e.g.defining alliteration(头韵） as the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words, offering examples such as “partridge（鹌鹑） in a pear tree” and “two turtle doves（菜包肉末饭）”. ⚫ A synthesis of the two approaches would involve presenting the definition, followed by examples, followed by a reinforcement of the definition
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction o 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? o3) distinguish between defining and characteristic features. Defining features are features necessary and sufficient for defining a concept. e.g. If an integer is evenly divisible by two, this feature is a necessary characteristic of an even number being divisible by two is also enough to guarantee that integer is an even number. So, divisibility by two is sufficient for evenness of a number. Other example: a widow is a woman who has previously been married(a necessary but not sufficient feature)and whose husband has died(a necessary and sufficient feature o A characteristic feature is a property typical of
Chapter 7 Knowledge learning and instruction ⚫ 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught? ⚫ (3) distinguish between defining and characteristic features. Defining features are features necessary and sufficient for defining a concept. e.g. If an integer is evenly divisible by two, this feature is a necessary characteristic of an even number.Being divisible by two is also enough to guarantee that integer is an even number. So, divisibility by two is sufficient for evenness of a number. Other example: a widow is a woman who has previously been married(a necessary but not sufficient feature) and whose husband has died(a necessary and sufficient feature) ⚫ A characteristic feature is a property typical of