Karady, G.G. Conventional Power Generation"" The Electrical Engineering Handbook Ed. Richard C. Dorf Boca raton crc Press llc. 2000
Karady, G.G. “Conventional Power Generation” The Electrical Engineering Handbook Ed. Richard C. Dorf Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
59 Conventional power Generation 59.2 Fossil Power plants Fuel Handling. Boiler. Turbine. Generator. Electric System. Condenser.Stack and Ash Handling. Cooling and Feedwater System 59.3 Nuclear power plants Pressurized Water Reactor. Boiling-Water Reactor George G. Karady 59.4 Geothermal Power plants Arizona State University 59.5 Hydroelectric Power Plants 59.1 Introduction The electric energy demand of the world is continuously increasing, and most of the energy is generated by conventional power plants, which remain the only cost-effective method for generating large quantities of energy Power plants utilize energy stored in the earth and convert it to electrical energy that is distributed and used y customers. This process converts most of the energy into heat, which increases the entropy of the earth. In this sense, power plants deplete the earths energy supply. Efficient operation becomes increasingly important to conserve energy. Typical energy sources used by power plants include fossil fuel(gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel (uranium) geothermal energy(hot water, steam), and hydro energy(water falling through a head). Around the turn of the century, the first fossil power plants used steam engines as the prime mover. These plants were evolved to an 8-to 10-MW capacity, but increasing power demands resulted in the replacement by a more efficient steam boiler-turbine arrangement. The first commercial steam turbine was introduced by DeLaval in 1882. The boilers were developed from heating furnaces. Oil was the preferred and most widely used fuel in the beginning. The oil shortage promoted coal-fired plants, but the adverse environmental effects (sulfur dioxide generation, acid rain, dust pollution, etc. )curtailed their use in the late seventies. Presently the most acceptable fuel is natural gas, which minimizes pollution and is available in large quantities. During the next two decades, gas-fired power plants will dominate the electric industry. The hydro plants' ancestors are water wheels used for pumping stations, mill driving, etc. Water-driven turbines were developed in the last century and used for generation of electricity since the beginning of their commercial use. However, most of the sites that can be developed economically are currently being utilized. No significant new development is expected in the United States in the near future Nuclear power plants appeared after the Second World War. The major development occurred during the sixties; however, by the eighties environmental considerations stopped plant development in the United States and slowed it down all over the world. Presently, the future of nuclear power generation is unclear, but the abundance of nuclear fuel and the expected energy shortage in the early part of the next century may rejuvenate nuclear development if safety issues can be resolved c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC 59 Conventional Power Generation 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Fossil Power Plants Fuel Handling • Boiler • Turbine • Generator • Electric System • Condenser • Stack and Ash Handling • Cooling and Feedwater System 59.3 Nuclear Power Plants Pressurized Water Reactor • Boiling-Water Reactor 59.4 Geothermal Power Plants 59.5 Hydroelectric Power Plants 59.1 Introduction The electric energy demand of the world is continuously increasing, and most of the energy is generated by conventional power plants, which remain the only cost-effective method for generating large quantities of energy. Power plants utilize energy stored in the earth and convert it to electrical energy that is distributed and used by customers. This process converts most of the energy into heat, which increases the entropy of the earth. In this sense, power plants deplete the earth’s energy supply. Efficient operation becomes increasingly important to conserve energy. Typical energy sources used by power plants include fossil fuel (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel (uranium), geothermal energy (hot water, steam), and hydro energy (water falling through a head). Around the turn of the century, the first fossil power plants used steam engines as the prime mover. These plants were evolved to an 8- to 10-MW capacity, but increasing power demands resulted in the replacement by a more efficient steam boiler–turbine arrangement. The first commercial steam turbine was introduced by DeLaval in 1882. The boilers were developed from heating furnaces. Oil was the preferred and most widely used fuel in the beginning. The oil shortage promoted coal-fired plants, but the adverse environmental effects (sulfur dioxide generation, acid rain, dust pollution, etc.) curtailed their use in the late seventies. Presently the most acceptable fuel is natural gas, which minimizes pollution and is available in large quantities. During the next two decades, gas-fired power plants will dominate the electric industry. The hydro plants’ ancestors are water wheels used for pumping stations, mill driving, etc. Water-driven turbines were developed in the last century and used for generation of electricity since the beginning of their commercial use. However, most of the sites that can be developed economically are currently being utilized. No significant new development is expected in the United States in the near future. Nuclear power plants appeared after the Second World War. The major development occurred during the sixties; however, by the eighties environmental considerations stopped plant development in the United States and slowed it down all over the world. Presently, the future of nuclear power generation is unclear, but the abundance of nuclear fuel and the expected energy shortage in the early part of the next century may rejuvenate nuclear development if safety issues can be resolved. George G. Karady Arizona State University
Geothermal power plants are the product of the clean energy cond ept, although the small-scale,local application of geothermal energy has a long history. Presently only a few plants are in operation. The potential for further development is limited because of the unavailability of geothermal energy sites that can be developed Typical technical data for different power plants is shown in Table 59.1 59.2 Fossil power plants The operational concept and major components of a fossil power plant are shown in Fig. 59.1 Fuel Handling The most frequently used fuels are oil, natural gas, and coal. Oil and gas are transported by rail, on ships, or through pipelines. In the former case the gas is liquefied Coal is transported by rail or ships if the plant is near a river or the sea. The power plant requires several days of fuel reserve. Oil and gas are stored in large metal tanks, and coal is kept in open yards. The temperature of the coal layer must be monitored to avoid self-ignition Dil is pumped and gas is fed to the burners of the boiler Coal is pulverized in large mills, and the powder is mixed with air and transported by air pressure, through pipes, to the burners. The coal transport from the yard to the mills requires automated transporter belts, hoppers, and sometimes manually operated bulldozers. boiler Two types of boilers are used in modern power plants: subcritical water-tube drum-type and supercritical once- through type. The former operates around 2500 psi, which is under the water critical pressure of 3208.2 (540C)because of turbine temperature limitations 0 psi. The superheated steam temperature is about 1000%F The latter operates above that pressure, at around 350 A typical subcritical water-tube drum-type boiler has an inverted-U shape On the bottom of the rising part is the furnace where the fuel is burned. The walls of the furnace are covered by water pipes. The drum and the superheater are at the top of the boiler. The falling part of the U houses the reheaters, economizer(water heater), and air preheater, which is supplied by the forced-draft fan. The induced-draft fan forces the flue gases out of the system and sends them up the stack, which is located behind the boiler. A flow diagram of the drum- type boiler is shown in Fig. 59. 2. The steam generator has three major systems: fuel, air-flue gas, and water-steam. Fuel System. Fuel is mixed with air and injected into the furnace through burners. The burners are equipped with nozzles, which are supplied by preheated air and carefully designed to assure the optimum air- fuel mix. The fuel mix is ignited by oil or gas torches. The furnace temperature is around 3000oF. Air-Flue Gas System. Ambient air is driven by the forced-draft fan through the air preheater, which is heated by the high-temperature(600@F)flue gases. The air is mixed with fuel in the burners and enters into the furnace, where it supports the fuel burning. The hot combustion flue gas generates steam and flows through the boiler Steam Energy Boiler generator Cooling Water eed water Cooling System Pond, River FIGURE 59.1 Major components of a fossil power pl e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Geothermal power plants are the product of the clean energy concept, although the small-scale, local application of geothermal energy has a long history. Presently only a few plants are in operation. The potential for further development is limited because of the unavailability of geothermal energy sites that can be developed economically. Typical technical data for different power plants is shown in Table 59.1. 59.2 Fossil Power Plants The operational concept and major components of a fossil power plant are shown in Fig. 59.1. Fuel Handling The most frequently used fuels are oil, natural gas, and coal. Oil and gas are transported by rail, on ships, or through pipelines. In the former case the gas is liquefied. Coal is transported by rail or ships if the plant is near a river or the sea. The power plant requires several days of fuel reserve. Oil and gas are stored in large metal tanks, and coal is kept in open yards. The temperature of the coal layer must be monitored to avoid self-ignition. Oil is pumped and gas is fed to the burners of the boiler. Coal is pulverized in large mills, and the powder is mixed with air and transported by air pressure, through pipes, to the burners. The coal transport from the yard to the mills requires automated transporter belts, hoppers, and sometimes manually operated bulldozers. Boiler Two types of boilers are used in modern power plants: subcritical water-tube drum-type and supercritical oncethrough type. The former operates around 2500 psi, which is under the water critical pressure of 3208.2 psi. The latter operates above that pressure, at around 3500 psi. The superheated steam temperature is about 1000°F (540°C) because of turbine temperature limitations. A typical subcritical water-tube drum-type boiler has an inverted-U shape. On the bottom of the rising part is the furnace where the fuel is burned. The walls of the furnace are covered by water pipes. The drum and the superheater are at the top of the boiler. The falling part of the U houses the reheaters, economizer (water heater), and air preheater, which is supplied by the forced-draft fan. The induced-draft fan forces the flue gases out of the system and sends them up the stack, which is located behind the boiler. A flow diagram of the drumtype boiler is shown in Fig. 59.2. The steam generator has three major systems: fuel, air-flue gas, and water-steam. Fuel System. Fuel is mixed with air and injected into the furnace through burners. The burners are equipped with nozzles, which are supplied by preheated air and carefully designed to assure the optimum air-fuel mix. The fuel mix is ignited by oil or gas torches. The furnace temperature is around 3000°F. Air-Flue Gas System. Ambient air is driven by the forced-draft fan through the air preheater, which is heated by the high-temperature (600°F) flue gases. The air is mixed with fuel in the burners and enters into the furnace, where it supports the fuel burning. The hot combustion flue gas generates steam and flows through the boiler FIGURE 59.1 Major components of a fossil power plant
TABLE 59.1 Power Plant Technical Data lized Construction Equivalent Typical lant Cost, Lead Time, Heat Rate, Fuel Cost Scheduled O&M Fixed. variable MW Size Btu/kwh S/MBtu Fuel Type Outage Rate Outage Rate S/kw/year S/MWh 10,400 Pulverized coal fluidized bed Gas turbine Combined-cycl 300 06624666 14 11,200 4.00 Nat. gas 4.00 Nat. gas 9500 c 2000 b CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC TABLE 59.1 Power Plant Technical Data Capitalized Construction Equivalent Equivalent Cost Generation Typical Plant Cost, Lead Time, Heat Rate, Fuel Cost, Forced Scheduled O&M Fixed, Variable Type MW Size $/kW Years Btu/kWh $/MBtu Fuel Type Outage Rate Outage Rate $/kW/year $/MWh Nuclear 1200 2400 10 10,400 1.25 Uranium 20 15 25 8 Pulverized coal steam 500 1400 6 9,900 2.25 Coal 12 12 20 5 Atmospheric fluidized bed 400 1400 6 9,800 2.25 Coal 14 12 17 6 Gas turbine 100 350 2 11,200 4.00 Nat. gas 7 7 1 5 Combined-cycle 300 600 4 7,800 4.00 Nat. gas 8 8 9 3 Coal-gasification combined-cycle 300 1500 6 9,500 2.25 Coal 12 10 25 4 Pumped storage hydro 300 1200 6 — — 5 5 5 2 Conventional hydro 300 1700 6 — — 3 4 5 2
Flue Gas To Low-Pressure Turbine Saturated ste Pressure Turbine Air Preheater Reheater EConom Feedwater (Risers 口T Downcomer FIGURE 59.2 Flow diagram of a typical drum-type steam boiler to heat the superheater, reheaters, economizer, etc. Induced-draft fans, located between the boiler and the stack, increase the flow and send the 300oF flue gases to the atmosphere through the stack. Water-Steam System. Large pumps drive the feedwater through the high-pressure heaters and the economizer, which further increases the water temperature(400-500@F). The former is heated by steam removed from the turbine; the latter is heated by the flue gases. The preheated water is fed to the steam drum Insulated tubes, called downcomers, are located outside the furnace and lead the water to a header. The header distributes the hot water among the risers. These are water tubes that line the furnace walls. The water tubes are heated by the combustion gases through both convection and radiation. The steam generated in these tubes flows to the drum, where it is separated from the water. Circulation is maintained by the density difference between the water in the downcomer and the water tubes. Saturated steam, collected in the drum, flows through the superheater. The superheater increases the steam temperature to about 1000@E Dry superheated steam drives the high-pressure turbine. The exhaust from the high-pressure turbine goes to the reheater, which again Increases he steam temperature. The reheated steam drives the low-pressure turbine The typical supercritical once-through-type boiler concept is show Fig. 59. The feedwater enters through the economizer to the boiler, which consists of riser tubes that line the furnace wall. all the water is converted to steam and fed directly to the superheater. The latter increases the steam temperature above the critical temperature of the water and drives the turbine. The construction of these steam generators is more expensive Boiler than the drum-type units but has a higher operating efficiency. Turbine The turbine converts the heat energy of the steam into mechanical energ Econg Modern power plants usually use one high-pressure and one or two lower pressure turbines. A typical turbine arrangement is shown in Fig. 59.4 FIGURE 59.3 Concept of once- The figure shows that only one bearing is between each of the machines. The shafts are connected to form a tandem compound steam turbine unit. High-pressure steam enters the high-pressure turbine to flow through and drive the turbine. The exhaust is reheated in the boiler and returned to the lower-pressure units. Both the rotor and the stationary part of the turbine have blades. The length of the blades increases from the steam entrance to the exhaust e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC to heat the superheater, reheaters, economizer, etc. Induced-draft fans, located between the boiler and the stack, increase the flow and send the 300°F flue gases to the atmosphere through the stack. Water-Steam System. Large pumps drive the feedwater through the high-pressure heaters and the economizer, which further increases the water temperature (400–500°F). The former is heated by steam removed from the turbine; the latter is heated by the flue gases. The preheated water is fed to the steam drum. Insulated tubes, called downcomers, are located outside the furnace and lead the water to a header. The header distributes the hot water among the risers. These are water tubes that line the furnace walls. The water tubes are heated by the combustion gases through both convection and radiation. The steam generated in these tubes flows to the drum, where it is separated from the water. Circulation is maintained by the density difference between the water in the downcomer and the water tubes. Saturated steam, collected in the drum, flows through the superheater. The superheater increases the steam temperature to about 1000°F. Dry superheated steam drives the high-pressure turbine. The exhaust from the high-pressure turbine goes to the reheater, which again increases the steam temperature. The reheated steam drives the low-pressure turbine. The typical supercritical once-through-type boiler concept is shown in Fig. 59.3. The feedwater enters through the economizer to the boiler, which consists of riser tubes that line the furnace wall. All the water is converted to steam and fed directly to the superheater. The latter increases the steam temperature above the critical temperature of the water and drives the turbine. The construction of these steam generators is more expensive than the drum-type units but has a higher operating efficiency. Turbine The turbine converts the heat energy of the steam into mechanical energy. Modern power plants usually use one high-pressure and one or two lowerpressure turbines. A typical turbine arrangement is shown in Fig. 59.4. The figure shows that only one bearing is between each of the machines. The shafts are connected to form a tandem compound steam turbine unit. High-pressure steam enters the high-pressure turbine to flow through and drive the turbine. The exhaust is reheated in the boiler and returned to the lower-pressure units. Both the rotor and the stationary part of the turbine have blades. The length of the blades increases from the steam entrance to the exhaust. FIGURE 59.2 Flow diagram of a typical drum-type steam boiler. Header Air Water Tubes (Risers) Steam Drum Freewater Regulator Downcomer Reheater To High-Pressure Turbine Attemperators Superheater Saturated Steam Primary Secondary To Low-Pressure Turbine From HighPressure Turbine Forced Draft Fan Air Preheater Feedwater from High-Pressure Feedwater Heater Air InducedDraft Fan Flue Gas to Stack Water Air Economizer Fuel FIGURE 59.3 Concept of oncethrough-type steam generator
只 Y YY gh Pressure Low Pressure FIGURE 59.4 Large tandem compound steam turbine.( Source: M.M. El-Wakil, Power Plant Technology New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984, P. 210. With permission. Figure 59. 5 shows the blade arrangement of an impulse-type turbine Steam enters through nozzles and flows through the first set of moving rotor blades. The following stationary blades change the direction of the flow and direct the steam into the next set of moving blades. The nozzles increase the steam speed and reduce pressure, as shown in the figure. The impact of the high-speed steam, generated by the change of direction and d in the moving blades, drives the turbin The reaction-type turbine has nonsymmetrical blades arranged like those shown in Fig. 59.5. The blade shape ssures that the pressure continually drops through all rows of blades, but steam velocity decreases in the moving blades and increases in the stationary blades. Generator The generator converts mechanical energy from the turbines into electrical energy. The major components of the generator are the frame, stator core and winding, rotor and winding, bearings, and cooling system. Figure 59.6 shows the cross section of a modern hydrogen-cooled generator. The stator has a laminated and slotted silicon steel iron core. The stacked core is clamped and held together by insulated axial through bolts. The stator winding is placed in the slots and consists of a copper-strand configuration with woven glass insulation between the strands and mica flakes, mica mat, or mica paper ground- wall insulation, To avoid insulation damage caused by vibration, the groundwall insulation is reinforced by asphalt, epoxy-impregnated fiberglass, or Dacron. The largest machine stator is Y-connected and has two coils per phase, connected in parallel. Most frequently, the stator is hydrogen-cooled; however, small units may be air-cooled and very large units may be water-cooled FIGURE 59.5 Velocity and pressure variation in an impulse turbine. e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Figure 59.5 shows the blade arrangement of an impulse-type turbine. Steam enters through nozzles and flows through the first set of moving rotor blades. The following stationary blades change the direction of the flow and direct the steam into the next set of moving blades. The nozzles increase the steam speed and reduce pressure, as shown in the figure. The impact of the high-speed steam, generated by the change of direction and speed in the moving blades, drives the turbine. The reaction-type turbine has nonsymmetrical blades arranged like those shown in Fig. 59.5. The blade shape assures that the pressure continually drops through all rows of blades, but steam velocity decreases in the moving blades and increases in the stationary blades. Generator The generator converts mechanical energy from the turbines into electrical energy. The major components of the generator are the frame, stator core and winding, rotor and winding, bearings, and cooling system. Figure 59.6 shows the cross section of a modern hydrogen-cooled generator. The stator has a laminated and slotted silicon steel iron core. The stacked core is clamped and held together by insulated axial through bolts. The stator winding is placed in the slots and consists of a copper-strand configuration with woven glass insulation between the strands and mica flakes, mica mat, or mica paper groundwall insulation. To avoid insulation damage caused by vibration, the groundwall insulation is reinforced by asphalt, epoxy-impregnated fiberglass, or Dacron. The largest machine stator is Y-connected and has two coils per phase, connected in parallel. Most frequently, the stator is hydrogen-cooled; however, small units may be air-cooled and very large units may be water-cooled. FIGURE 59.4 Large tandem compound steam turbine. (Source: M.M. El-Wakil, Power Plant Technology, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984, p. 210. With permission.) FIGURE 59.5 Velocity and pressure variation in an impulse turbine
,二二 b dr E End-winding suona FIGURE 59.6 Direct hydrogen-inner-cooled generator. (Source: R W. Beckwith, Westinghouse Power Systems Marketing Training Guide on Large Electric Generators, Pittsburgh: Westinghouse Electric Corp. 1979, p. 54. With permiss The solid steel rotor has slots milled along the axis. The multiturn, copper rotor winding is placed in the slots and cooled by hydrogen. Cooling is enhanced by subslots and axial cooling passages. The rotor winding is restrained by wedges inserted in the slots. The rotor winding is supplied by dc current, either directly by a brushless excitation system or through collector rings. The rotor is supported by bearings at both ends. The non-drive-end bearing is insulated to avoid shaft current generated by stray magnetic fields. The hydrogen is cooled by a hydrogen-to-water heat exchanger mounted on the generator or installed in a closed-loop cooling system The dc current of the rotor generates a rotating magnetic field that induces an ac voltage in the his voltage drives current through the load and supplies the electrical energy. Electric System generated by the power plant supplies the electric network through transmission lines. The power plant ation requires auxiliary power to operate mills, pumps, etc. The auxiliary power requirement is approxi- mately 10 to 15%. Smaller generators are directly connected in parallel using a busbar. Each generator is protected by a circuit breaker. The power plant auxiliary system is supplied from the same busbar. The transmission lines are connected to the generator bus, either directly or through a transformer. I circuit breaker, to the main transformer. A conceptual one-line diagram is shown in Fig. 59.7. The generator supplies main and auxiliary transformers without circuit breakers. The units are connected in parallel at the high-voltage side of the main transformers by a busbar. The transmission lines are also supplied from this bus. Circuit breakers are installed at the secondary side of the main and auxiliary transformer. The application of generator circuit breaker is not economical in the case of large generators. Because of the generator's large short-circuit current, special expensive circuit breakers are required. However, the transformers reduce the short-circuit current and permit the use of standard circuit breakers at the secondary side. The disconnect switches permit visual observation of the off state and are needed for maintenance of the circuit breakers e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC The solid steel rotor has slots milled along the axis. The multiturn, copper rotor winding is placed in the slots and cooled by hydrogen. Cooling is enhanced by subslots and axial cooling passages. The rotor winding is restrained by wedges inserted in the slots. The rotor winding is supplied by dc current, either directly by a brushless excitation system or through collector rings. The rotor is supported by bearings at both ends. The non-drive-end bearing is insulated to avoid shaft current generated by stray magnetic fields. The hydrogen is cooled by a hydrogen-to-water heat exchanger mounted on the generator or installed in a closed-loop cooling system. The dc current of the rotor generates a rotating magnetic field that induces an ac voltage in the stator winding. This voltage drives current through the load and supplies the electrical energy. Electric System Energy generated by the power plant supplies the electric network through transmission lines. The power plant operation requires auxiliary power to operate mills, pumps, etc. The auxiliary power requirement is approximately 10 to 15%. Smaller generators are directly connected in parallel using a busbar. Each generator is protected by a circuit breaker. The power plant auxiliary system is supplied from the same busbar. The transmission lines are connected to the generator bus, either directly or through a transformer. The larger generators are unit-connected. In this arrangement the generator is directly connected, without a circuit breaker, to the main transformer. A conceptual one-line diagram is shown in Fig. 59.7. The generator supplies main and auxiliary transformers without circuit breakers. The units are connected in parallel at the high-voltage side of the main transformers by a busbar. The transmission lines are also supplied from this bus. Circuit breakers are installed at the secondary side of the main and auxiliary transformer. The application of generator circuit breaker is not economical in the case of large generators. Because of the generator’s large short-circuit current, special expensive circuit breakers are required. However, the transformers reduce the short-circuit current and permit the use of standard circuit breakers at the secondary side. The disconnect switches permit visual observation of the off state and are needed for maintenance of the circuit breakers. FIGURE 59.6 Direct hydrogen-inner-cooled generator. (Source: R.W. Beckwith, Westinghouse Power Systems Marketing Training Guide on Large Electric Generators, Pittsburgh: Westinghouse Electric Corp. 1979, p. 54. With permission.)
Breake Auxiliary Transformer Circuit FIGURE 59.7 Conceptual one-line diagram for a unit-connected gener The condenser condenses turbine exhaust steam to water, which is pumped back to the steam generator through various water heaters. The condensation produces a vacuum, which is necessary to exhaust the steam from the turbine. The condenser is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, where steam condenses on water-cooled tubes. Cold water is obtained from the cooling towers or other cooling systems. The condensed water is fed through a deaerator, which removes absorbed gases from the water. Next, the gas-free water is mixed with the feedwater and returned to the boiler. The gases absorbed in the water may cause corrosion(oxygen) and increase condenser pressure, adversely affecting efficiency. Older plants use a separate deaerator heater, while deaerators in modern plants are usually integrated in the condensor, where injected steam jets produce pressure drop and remove absorbed gases. Stack and Ash Handling The stack is designed to disperse gases into the atmosphere without disturbing the environment. This requires ufficient stack height, which assists the fans in removing gases from the boiler through natural convection. The gases contain both solid particles and harmful chemicals. Solid particles, like dust, are removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or bag-house filters Harmful sulfur dioxide is eliminated by scrubbers The most common is the lime/limestone scrubbing process Coal-fired power plants generate a significant amount of ash. The disposition of the ash causes environmental problems. Several systems have been developed in past decades. Large ash particles are collected by a water- lled ash hopper, located at the bottom of the furnace. Fly ash is removed by filters, then mixed with water. Both systems produce sludge that is pumped to a clay-lined pond where water evaporates and the ash fills disposal sites. The clay lining prevents intrusion of groundwater into the pond Cooling and Feedwater System The condenser is cooled by cold water. The open-loop system obtains the water from a river or sea, if the power plant location permits it. The closed-loop system utilizes cooling towers, spray ponds, or spray canals. In the case of spray ponds or canals, the water is pumped through nozzles, which generate fine sprays. Evaporation cools the water sprays as they fall back into the pond. Several different types of cooling towers have been developed. The most frequently used is the wet cooling tower, where the hot water is sprayed on top of a latticework of horizontal bars. The water drifts downward and is cooled, through evaporation, by the air, which is forced by fans or natural draft upward. The power plant loses a small fraction of the water through leakage. The feedwater system replaces this lost water. Replacement water has to be free from absorbed gases, chemicals, etc., because the impurities cause severe corrosion in the turbines and boiler. The water treatment system purifies replacement water by pretreat ment, which includes filtering, chlorination, demineralization, condensation, polishing. These complicated mical processes result in a corrosion-free high-quality feedwater e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Condenser The condenser condenses turbine exhaust steam to water, which is pumped back to the steam generator through various water heaters. The condensation produces a vacuum, which is necessary to exhaust the steam from the turbine. The condenser is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, where steam condenses on water-cooled tubes. Cold water is obtained from the cooling towers or other cooling systems. The condensed water is fed through a deaerator, which removes absorbed gases from the water. Next, the gas-free water is mixed with the feedwater and returned to the boiler. The gases absorbed in the water may cause corrosion (oxygen) and increase condenser pressure, adversely affecting efficiency. Older plants use a separate deaerator heater, while deaerators in modern plants are usually integrated in the condensor, where injected steam jets produce pressure drop and remove absorbed gases. Stack and Ash Handling The stack is designed to disperse gases into the atmosphere without disturbing the environment. This requires sufficient stack height, which assists the fans in removing gases from the boiler through natural convection. The gases contain both solid particles and harmful chemicals. Solid particles, like dust, are removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or bag-house filters. Harmful sulfur dioxide is eliminated by scrubbers. The most common is the lime/limestone scrubbing process. Coal-fired power plants generate a significant amount of ash. The disposition of the ash causes environmental problems. Several systems have been developed in past decades. Large ash particles are collected by a water- filled ash hopper, located at the bottom of the furnace. Fly ash is removed by filters, then mixed with water. Both systems produce sludge that is pumped to a clay-lined pond where water evaporates and the ash fills disposal sites. The clay lining prevents intrusion of groundwater into the pond. Cooling and Feedwater System The condenser is cooled by cold water. The open-loop system obtains the water from a river or sea, if the power plant location permits it. The closed-loop system utilizes cooling towers, spray ponds, or spray canals. In the case of spray ponds or canals, the water is pumped through nozzles, which generate fine sprays. Evaporation cools the water sprays as they fall back into the pond. Several different types of cooling towers have been developed. The most frequently used is the wet cooling tower, where the hot water is sprayed on top of a latticework of horizontal bars. The water drifts downward and is cooled, through evaporation, by the air, which is forced by fans or natural draft upward. The power plant loses a small fraction of the water through leakage. The feedwater system replaces this lost water. Replacement water has to be free from absorbed gases, chemicals, etc., because the impurities cause severe corrosion in the turbines and boiler. The water treatment system purifies replacement water by pretreatment, which includes filtering, chlorination, demineralization, condensation, polishing. These complicated chemical processes result in a corrosion-free high-quality feedwater. FIGURE 59.7 Conceptual one-line diagram for a unit-connected generator
Pressurizer Turbine FIGURE 59.8(A)Power plant with PWR;(B) power plant with BWR. 59.3 Nuclear power plants More than 500 nuclear power plants operate around the world. Close to 300 operate pressurized water reactors (PWRs), more than 100 are built with boiling-water reactors(BWRs), about 50 use gas-cooled reactors, and the rest are heavy-water reactors. In addition a few fast breeder reactors are in operation. These reactors built for better utilization of uranium fuel. The modern nuclear plant size varies from 100 to 1200 MW. Pressurized water reactor The general arrangement of a power plant with a PwR is shown in Fig. 59.8(A). The reactor heats the water from about 550 to about 650E. High pressure, at about 2235 psi, prevents boiling. Pressure is maintained by a pressurizer, and the water is circulated by a pump through a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger evaporates the feedwater and generates steam, which supplies a system similar to a con ventional power plant. The advantage of this two-loop system is the separation of the potentially radioactive reactor cooling fluid from the water-steam system. The reactor core consists of fuel and control rods, grids hold both the control and fuel rods The fuel rods are inserted in the grid following a predetermined pattern. The fuel elements are Zircaloy-clad rods filled with UO2 pellets. The control rods are made of a silver(80%), cadmium(5%), and indium(15%)alloy protected by stainless steel. The reactor operation is controlled by the position of the rods. In addition, control rods are used to shut down the reactor. The rods are released and fall in the core when emergency shutdown is required. Cooling water enters the reactor from the bottom, flows through the core, and is heated by nuclear fission. Boiling- Water Reactor In the BWR shown in Fig. 59.8(B), the pressure is low, about 1000 psi. The nuclear reaction heats the water irectly to evaporate it and produce wet steam at about 545F. The remaining water is recirculated and mixed with feedwater. The steam drives a turbine that typically rotates at 1800 rpm. The rest of the plant is similar to a conventional power plant. a typical reactor arrangement is shown in Fig. 59.9. The figure shows all the major components of a reactor. The fuel and control rod assembly is located in the lower part. The steam separators are above the core, and the steam dryers are at the top of the reactor. The reactor is enclosed by a concrete dome 59.4 Geothermal power plants The solid crust of the earth is an average of 20 mil (32 km)deep. Under the solid crust is the molten mass, the magma. The heat stored in the magma is the source of geothermal energy. The hot molten magma comes close to the surface at certain points in the earth and produces volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers. These are the signs of a possible geothermal site. Three forms of geothermal energy are considered for development. e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC 59.3 Nuclear Power Plants More than 500 nuclear power plants operate around the world. Close to 300 operate pressurized water reactors (PWRs), more than 100 are built with boiling-water reactors (BWRs), about 50 use gas-cooled reactors, and the rest are heavy-water reactors. In addition a few fast breeder reactors are in operation. These reactors are built for better utilization of uranium fuel. The modern nuclear plant size varies from 100 to 1200 MW. Pressurized Water Reactor The general arrangement of a power plant with a PWR is shown in Fig. 59.8(A). The reactor heats the water from about 550 to about 650°F. High pressure, at about 2235 psi, prevents boiling. Pressure is maintained by a pressurizer, and the water is circulated by a pump through a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger evaporates the feedwater and generates steam, which supplies a system similar to a conventional power plant. The advantage of this two-loop system is the separation of the potentially radioactive reactor cooling fluid from the water-steam system. The reactor core consists of fuel and control rods. Grids hold both the control and fuel rods. The fuel rods are inserted in the grid following a predetermined pattern. The fuel elements are Zircaloy-clad rods filled with UO2 pellets. The control rods are made of a silver (80%), cadmium (5%), and indium (15%) alloy protected by stainless steel. The reactor operation is controlled by the position of the rods. In addition, control rods are used to shut down the reactor. The rods are released and fall in the core when emergency shutdown is required. Cooling water enters the reactor from the bottom, flows through the core, and is heated by nuclear fission. Boiling-Water Reactor In the BWR shown in Fig. 59.8(B), the pressure is low, about 1000 psi. The nuclear reaction heats the water directly to evaporate it and produce wet steam at about 545°F. The remaining water is recirculated and mixed with feedwater. The steam drives a turbine that typically rotates at 1800 rpm. The rest of the plant is similar to a conventional power plant. A typical reactor arrangement is shown in Fig. 59.9. The figure shows all the major components of a reactor. The fuel and control rod assembly is located in the lower part. The steam separators are above the core, and the steam dryers are at the top of the reactor. The reactor is enclosed by a concrete dome. 59.4 Geothermal Power Plants The solid crust of the earth is an average of 20 mil (32 km) deep. Under the solid crust is the molten mass, the magma. The heat stored in the magma is the source of geothermal energy. The hot molten magma comes close to the surface at certain points in the earth and produces volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers. These are the signs of a possible geothermal site. Three forms of geothermal energy are considered for development. FIGURE 59.8 (A) Power plant with PWR; (B) power plant with BWR
Vent and Head Spray eam Drye ssembly Steam Separator Feedwater Sparger Core Spray Line Core Spray Sparger Top Guide Fuel Assembles Control Rod Drives Control rod drive In- Core Flx Monito FIGURE 59.9 Typical BWR reactor arrangement. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company. Hydrothermal Source. This is the most developed source. Power plants, up to a capacity of 2000 MW,are in operation worldwide. Heat from the magma is conducted upward by the rocks. The groundwater drifts down through the cracks and fissures to form reservoirs when water-impermeable solid rock bed is present. The water in this reservoir is heated by the heat from the magma. Depending on the distance from the magma and rock onfiguration, steam, hot pressurized water, or the mixture of the two are generated. Signs of these underwater reservoirs include hot springs and geysers. The reservoir is tapped by a well, which brings the steam-water mixture to the surface to produce energy. The geothermal power plant concept is illustrated in Fig. 59.10 The hot water and steam mixture is fed into a separator. If the steam content is high, a centrifugal separator is used to remove the water and other particles. The obtained steam drives a turbine. The typical pressure is Ine Cooling TTTTT Condenser Condensate FIGURE 59.10 Concept of a geothermal power plant. e 2000 by CRC Press LLC
© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Hydrothermal Source. This is the most developed source. Power plants, up to a capacity of 2000 MW, are in operation worldwide. Heat from the magma is conducted upward by the rocks. The groundwater drifts down through the cracks and fissures to form reservoirs when water-impermeable solid rock bed is present. The water in this reservoir is heated by the heat from the magma. Depending on the distance from the magma and rock configuration, steam, hot pressurized water, or the mixture of the two are generated. Signs of these underwater reservoirs include hot springs and geysers. The reservoir is tapped by a well, which brings the steam-water mixture to the surface to produce energy. The geothermal power plant concept is illustrated in Fig. 59.10. The hot water and steam mixture is fed into a separator. If the steam content is high, a centrifugal separator is used to remove the water and other particles. The obtained steam drives a turbine. The typical pressure is FIGURE 59.9 Typical BWR reactor arrangement. (Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company.) FIGURE 59.10 Concept of a geothermal power plant
