《电子工程师手册》学习资料（英文版）Chapter 57 Magnetooptics

57.1 Introduction 57.2 Classification of Magnetooptic Effects David Young Faraday Rotation or Magnetic Circular Birefringence.Cotton- Rockwell Semiconductor Systemns Mouton Effect or Magnetic Linear Birefringence. Kerr Effects

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57 Magnetooptics 57.1 57.2 Classification of Magnetooptic Effects David Young Faraday Rotation or Magnetic Circular Birefringence Rockwell Semiconductor Systems Mouton Effect or Magnetic Linear Birefringence. Ker 57.3 Applications of M Yuan pu Optical Isolator and Circulator. MSw-Based Guided-Wave Applied materials magnetooptic Bragg Cell.Magnetooptic Recording 57.1 Introduction When a magnetic field H is applied to a magnetic medium(crystal), a change in the magnetization M within he medium will occur as described by the constitution relation of the Maxwell equations M=X H where i is the magnetic susceptibility tensor of the medium. The change in magnetization can in turn induce a perturbation in the complex optical permittivity tensor E. This phenomenon is called the magnetooptic effect. Mathematically, the magnetooptic effect can be described by expanding the permittivity tensor as a series in increasing powers of the magnetization [Torfeh et al., 1977] as follows: Soleil 小(M)=ε+ieM+质MLM Here j is the imaginary number. M, M, and M, are the magnetization components along the principal crystal axes X, Y, and Z, respectively. Eo is the permittivity of free space. E, is the relative permittivity of the medium in the paramagnetic state (i.e. M=0), f is the first-order magnetooptic scalar factor, fi i is the second-order magnetooptic tensor factor, 8, is the Kronecker delta, and ejk is the antisymmetric alternate index of the third order. Here we have used Einstein notation of repeated indices and have assumed that the medium is quasi transparent so that e is a Hermitian tensor. Moreover, we have also invoked the Onsager relation in thermo dynamical statistics, i.e., E, (M)=E;(M). The consequences of Hermiticity and Onsager relation are that the real part of the permittivity tensor is an even function of M whereas the imaginary part is an odd function M. For a cubic crystal, such as YIG(yttrium-iron-garnet), the tensor fiu reduces to only three independent terms. In terms of Voigt notation, they are fu f2, and f. In a principal coordinate system, the tensor can be expressed as fu=f12,5x+f4(6+86)+△fδ55k (57.2) c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC 57 Magnetooptics 57.1 Introduction 57.2 Classification of Magnetooptic Effects Faraday Rotation or Magnetic Circular Birefringence • CottonMouton Effect or Magnetic Linear Birefringence • Kerr Effects 57.3 Applications of Magnetooptic Effects Optical Isolator and Circulator • MSW-Based Guided-Wave Magnetooptic Bragg Cell • Magnetooptic Recording 57.1 Introduction When a magnetic field H is applied to a magnetic medium (crystal), a change in the magnetization M within the medium will occur as described by the constitution relation of the Maxwell equations M = c ´ ·H where c ´ is the magnetic susceptibility tensor of the medium. The change in magnetization can in turn induce a perturbation in the complex optical permittivity tensor e ´. This phenomenon is called the magnetooptic effect. Mathematically, the magnetooptic effect can be described by expanding the permittivity tensor as a series in increasing powers of the magnetization [Torfeh et al., 1977] as follows: e ´ = e0[eij] (57.1) where eij(M) = erdij + jf1 eijkMk + fijklMkMl Here j is the imaginary number. M1, M2, and M3 are the magnetization components along the principal crystal axes X, Y, and Z, respectively. e0 is the permittivity of free space. er is the relative permittivity of the medium in the paramagnetic state (i.e., M = 0), f1 is the first-order magnetooptic scalar factor, fijk l is the second-order magnetooptic tensor factor, dij is the Kronecker delta, and eijk is the antisymmetric alternate index of the third order. Here we have used Einstein notation of repeated indices and have assumed that the medium is quasitransparent so that e ´ is a Hermitian tensor. Moreover, we have also invoked the Onsager relation in thermodynamical statistics, i.e., eij(M) = eji(–M). The consequences of Hermiticity and Onsager relation are that the real part of the permittivity tensor is an even function of M whereas the imaginary part is an odd function of M. For a cubic crystal, such as YIG (yttrium-iron-garnet), the tensor fijkl reduces to only three independent terms. In terms of Voigt notation, they are f11, f12, and f44. In a principal coordinate system, the tensor can be expressed as fijkl = f12dijdkl + f44 (dildkj + dikdlj) + Df dkldijdjk (57.2) where Df = f11 – f12 – 2f44. David Young Rockwell Semiconductor Systems Yuan Pu Applied Materials

The two eigenmodes of light propagation through the magnetooptic medium can be expressed as a right circular polarized(RCP) light wave E1(2)=exp[ j or- 2rn,2 (57.5a) and a left circular polarized(LCP) light wave 2兀t -Expl J where n,2=E, +fMj; o and no are the angular frequency and the wavelength of the incident light, respectively n, and n are the refractive indices of the RCP and LCP modes, respectively. These modes correspond to two counterrotating circularly polarized light waves. The superposition of these two waves produces a linearly polarized wave. The plane of polarization of the resultant wave rotates as one circular wave overtakes the other The rate of rotation is given by 6≡M rad/m B is known as the Faraday rotation(FR)coefficient. When the direction of the magnetization is reversed, the gle of rotation changes its sign. Since two counterrotating circular polarized optical waves are used to explain FR. the effect also known as optical magnetic circular birefringence(MCB ). Furthermore, since the senses of polarization rotation of forward traveling and backward traveling light waves are opposite, FR is a nonreciprocal optical effect. Optical devices such as optical isolators and optical circulators use the Faraday effect to achieve their nonreciprocal functions For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic media, the FR is charac terized under a magnetically saturated condition, i.e., M,= Ms the saturation magnetization of the medium. For paramagnetic or diamagnetic materials, the magnetization is proportional to the external applied magnetic field Ho. Therefore, the FR is proportional to the external field or AF= VHo where V=Xof/o ve, )is called the Verdet constant and %o is the magnetic susceptibility of free space Cotton. Mouton effect or magnetic linear birefringence When transmitted light is propagating perpendicular to the magnetization direction, the first-order isotropic R effect will vanish and the second-order anisotropic Cotton-Mouton(CM)effect will dominate. For example, if the direction of magnetization is along the Z axis and the light wave is propagating along the X axis, the E,+fu,M 0 0 0E,+f12M30 Er+fMi c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC The two eigenmodes of light propagation through the magnetooptic medium can be expressed as a right circular polarized (RCP) light wave (57.5a) and a left circular polarized (LCP) light wave (57.5b) where n± 2 @ er ± f1M3; w and l0 are the angular frequency and the wavelength of the incident light, respectively. n+ and n– are the refractive indices of the RCP and LCP modes, respectively. These modes correspond to two counterrotating circularly polarized light waves. The superposition of these two waves produces a linearly polarized wave. The plane of polarization of the resultant wave rotates as one circular wave overtakes the other. The rate of rotation is given by (57.6) qF is known as the Faraday rotation (FR) coefficient. When the direction of the magnetization is reversed, the angle of rotation changes its sign. Since two counterrotating circular polarized optical waves are used to explain FR, the effect is thus also known as optical magnetic circular birefringence (MCB). Furthermore, since the senses of polarization rotation of forward traveling and backward traveling light waves are opposite, FR is a nonreciprocal optical effect. Optical devices such as optical isolators and optical circulators use the Faraday effect to achieve their nonreciprocal functions. For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic media, the FR is characterized under a magnetically saturated condition, i.e., M3 = MS, the saturation magnetization of the medium. For paramagnetic or diamagnetic materials, the magnetization is proportional to the external applied magnetic field H0. Therefore, the FR is proportional to the external field or qF = VH0 where V = c0f1p/(l0 ) is called the Verdet constant and c0 is the magnetic susceptibility of free space. Cotton-Mouton Effect or Magnetic Linear Birefringence When transmitted light is propagating perpendicular to the magnetization direction, the first-order isotropic FR effect will vanish and the second-order anisotropic Cotton-Mouton (CM) effect will dominate. For example, if the direction of magnetization is along the Z axis and the light wave is propagating along the X axis, the permittivity tensor becomes (57.7) ˜ E Z j exp j t n 1 Z 0 1 0 2 ( ) = È Î Í Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ˙ - Ê Ë Á ˆ ¯ ˜ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ + w p l ˜ E Z j exp j t n 2 Z 0 1 0 2 ( ) = - È Î Í Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ˙ - Ê Ë Á ˆ ¯ ˜ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ - w p l q p l e l e F r r f M f M @ = 1 3 0 1 3 0 1 8 rad/m degree/cm . er ´ = + + + È Î Í Í Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ e e e e e 0 12 3 2 12 3 2 11 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 r r r f M f M f M

The eigenmodes are two linearly polarized light waves polarized along and perpendicular to the magnetization E1(x)=0exor~2兀 (57.8a) E(x)=1Jexplilot-2T m (57.8b) 0 with ny=E,+fnM3and n2=E,+fmM; ny and n, are the refractive indices of the parallel and perpendicular linearly polarized modes, respectively. The difference in phase velocities between these two waves gives rise to a magnetic linear birefringence(MLB) of light which is also known as the CM or Voigt effect. In this case, the nw-ny. The phase shift or retardation can be found by the following expressiong. y depends on the difference light transmitted through the crystal has elliptic polarization. The degree of ellipticit π(f1-f2)M2 rad/m 1.8(f1-f12)M3 legree/cm 入 Since the sense of this phase shift is unchanged when the direction of light propagation is reversed, the CM effect is a reciprocal effect. Kerr Effects Kerr effects occur when a light beam is reflected from a magnetooptic medium. There are three distinct of Kerr effects, namely, polar, longitudinal (or meridional), and transverse(or equatorial). Figure 57.1 shows the configurations of these Kerr effects. A reflectivity tensor relation between the incident light and the reflected light can be used to describe the phenomena as follows E (57.10) r21r22 where r: is the reflectance matrix. En and Ev are, respectively, the perpendicular(TE)and parallel (TM)electric field components of the incident light waves(with respect to the plane of incidence). E, and Em are, respectively, the perpendicular and parallel electric field components of the reflected light waves The diagonal elements Tu and r can be calculated by Fresnel reflection coefficients and Snells law. The off diagonal elements Tiz and T2 can be derived from the magnetooptic permittivity tensor, the applied magneti zation and Maxwell equations with the use of appropriate boundary conditions [Arecchi and Schulz-DuBois 1972]. It is important to note that all the elements of the reflectance matrix ri, are dependent on the angle incidence between the incident light and the magnetooptic film surface c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC The eigenmodes are two linearly polarized light waves polarized along and perpendicular to the magnetization direction: (57.8a) (57.8b) with n// 2 = er + f11M3 2 and n^ 2 = er + f12M3 2 ; n// and n^ are the refractive indices of the parallel and perpendicular linearly polarized modes, respectively. The difference in phase velocities between these two waves gives rise to a magnetic linear birefringence (MLB) of light which is also known as the CM or Voigt effect. In this case, the light transmitted through the crystal has elliptic polarization. The degree of ellipticity depends on the difference n// – n^. The phase shift or retardation can be found by the following expression: (57.9) Since the sense of this phase shift is unchanged when the direction of light propagation is reversed, the CM effect is a reciprocal effect. Kerr Effects Kerr effects occur when a light beam is reflected from a magnetooptic medium. There are three distinct types of Kerr effects, namely, polar, longitudinal (or meridional), and transverse (or equatorial). Figure 57.1 shows the configurations of these Kerr effects. A reflectivity tensor relation between the incident light and the reflected light can be used to describe the phenomena as follows: (57.10) where rij is the reflectance matrix. Ei^ and Ei// are, respectively, the perpendicular (TE) and parallel (TM) electric field components of the incident light waves (with respect to the plane of incidence). Er^ and Er// are,respectively, the perpendicular and parallel electric field components of the reflected light waves. The diagonal elements r11 and r22 can be calculated by Fresnel reflection coefficients and Snell’s law. The offdiagonal elements r12 and r21 can be derived from the magnetooptic permittivity tensor, the applied magnetization and Maxwell equations with the use of appropriate boundary conditions [Arecchi and Schulz-DuBois, 1972]. It is important to note that all the elements of the reflectance matrix rij are dependent on the angle of incidence between the incident light and the magnetooptic film surface. ˜ E x // exp // ( ) = j t n x È Î Í Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ˙ - Ê Ë Á ˆ ¯ ˜ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ 0 0 1 2 0 w p l ˜ E x exp j t n x ^ ^ = È Î Í Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ˙ - Ê Ë Á ˆ ¯ ˜ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ ( ) 0 1 0 2 0 w p l y p l e l e cm r r f f M f f M @ - - ( ) . ( ) 11 12 3 2 0 11 12 3 2 0 1 8 rad/m degree/cm or E E r r r r E E r r i i ^ ^ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ = È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ ˙ È Î Í Í ˘ ˚ ˙ // //˙ 11 12 21 22

-T----7 REFLECTED BEAM 57.1 Kerr magnetooptic effect. The magnetization vector is represented by M while the plane of incidence is tted.(a)Polar;(b)longitudinal;(c)transverse. Source: A V. Sokolov, Optical Properties of Metals, London: Blackie, Polar Kerr effect The polar Kerr effect takes place when the magnetization is perpendicular to the plane of the material. A pair of orthogonal linearly polarized reflected light modes will be induced and the total reflected light becomes elliptically polarized. The orientation of the major axis of the elliptic polarization of the reflected light is the same for both TE(E or TM(E) linearly polarized incident lights since rm=r Longitudinal or Meridional Kerr Effect The longitudinal Kerr effect takes place when the magnetization is in the plane of the material and parallel to ne plane of incidence. Again, an elliptically polarized reflected light beam will be induced, but the orientation of the major axis of the elliptic polarization of the reflected light is opposite to each other for TE(Ei) and TM (Enn) linearly polarized incident lights since ri2 =-f2l Transverse or Equatorial Kerr Effect This effect is also known as the equatorial Kerr effect. The magnetization in this case is in the plane of the material and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The reflected light does not undergo a change in its polarization since Tmz = T2 =0. However, the intensity of the TM(E) reflected light will be changed if the direction of the magnetic field is suddenly reversed. For TE (ED reflected light, this modulation effect is at least two orders of magnitude smaller and is usually ignored. 57 3 Applications of Magnetooptic Effects Optical Isolator and Circulator In fiber-optic-based communication systems with gigahertz bandwidth or coherent detection, it is often essential to eliminate back reflections from the fiber ends and other surfaces or discontinuities because they can cause nplitude fluctuations, frequency instabilities, limitation on modulation bandwidth, noise or even damage to ne lasers. An optical isolator permits the forward transmission of light while simultaneously preventing reverse transmission with a high degree of extinction. The schematic configuration of a conventional optical isolator polarization rotator which is nonreciprocal t Johnson, 1966] is shown in Fig. 57. 2. It consists of a 45-degree utilizing bulk rotator and permanent magne I so that back-reflected light is rotated by exactly 90 degrees and can therefore be excluded from the laser. The nonreciprocity is furnished by the Faraday effect. The basic operation principle is as follows: A Faraday isolator consists of rotator material immersed in a longitudinal magnetic between two polarizers. Light emitted by the laser passes through the second polarizer being oriented at 45 degrees relative to the transmission axis of the first polarizer. Any subsequently reflected light is then returned through the second polarizer, rotated by another 45 degrees before being extinguished by the first polar izer--thus optical isolation is achieved c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Polar Kerr Effect The polar Kerr effect takes place when the magnetization is perpendicular to the plane of the material. A pair of orthogonal linearly polarized reflected light modes will be induced and the total reflected light becomes elliptically polarized. The orientation of the major axis of the elliptic polarization of the reflected light is the same for both TE (Ei^) or TM (Ei//) linearly polarized incident lights since r12 = r21. Longitudinal or Meridional Kerr Effect The longitudinal Kerr effect takes place when the magnetization is in the plane of the material and parallel to the plane of incidence. Again, an elliptically polarized reflected light beam will be induced, but the orientation of the major axis of the elliptic polarization of the reflected light is opposite to each other for TE (Ei^) and TM (Ei//) linearly polarized incident lights since r12 = –r21. Transverse or Equatorial Kerr Effect This effect is also known as the equatorial Kerr effect. The magnetization in this case is in the plane of the material and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The reflected light does not undergo a change in its polarization since r12 = r21 = 0. However, the intensity of the TM (Er//) reflected light will be changed if the direction of the magnetic field is suddenly reversed. For TE (Er^) reflected light, this modulation effect is at least two orders of magnitude smaller and is usually ignored. 57.3 Applications of Magnetooptic Effects Optical Isolator and Circulator In fiber-optic-based communication systems with gigahertz bandwidth or coherent detection, it is often essential to eliminate back reflections from the fiber ends and other surfaces or discontinuities because they can cause amplitude fluctuations, frequency instabilities, limitation on modulation bandwidth, noise or even damage to the lasers. An optical isolator permits the forward transmission of light while simultaneously preventing reverse transmission with a high degree of extinction. The schematic configuration of a conventional optical isolator utilizing bulk rotator and permanent magnet [Johnson, 1966] is shown in Fig. 57.2. It consists of a 45-degree polarization rotator which is nonreciprocal so that back-reflected light is rotated by exactly 90 degrees and can therefore be excluded from the laser. The nonreciprocity is furnished by the Faraday effect. The basic operation principle is as follows: A Faraday isolator consists of rotator material immersed in a longitudinal magnetic field between two polarizers. Light emitted by the laser passes through the second polarizer being oriented at 45 degrees relative to the transmission axis of the first polarizer. Any subsequently reflected light is then returned through the second polarizer, rotated by another 45 degrees before being extinguished by the first polarizer—thus optical isolation is achieved. FIGURE 57.1 Kerr magnetooptic effect. The magnetization vector is represented by M while the plane of incidence is shown dotted. (a) Polar; (b) longitudinal; (c) transverse. (Source: A.V. Sokolov, Optical Properties of Metals, London: Blackie, 1967. With permission.)

Polar Faraday Analyze Incident Rotator Reflected Backward Beam FIGURE 57.2 Schematic of an optical isolator. The polarization directions of forward and backward beams are shown below the schematic TABLE 57. 1 Characteristics of YIG and BIG Faraday Rotators Verdet constant(min/cm-Gauss) 1300mm 10.54-806 1550mm aturated magnetooptic rotation(degree/mm) 1300mm 20.6 1550mm 93.8 Thickness for 45-degree rotation (mm) 1300mm 1550nm <0.1 Typical reverse isolation(dB) 30-35 Required magnetic field(Gauss) Magnetically tunable a variable b Some big not tunable Source: D K. wilson, Optical isolators adapt to commu needs, Laser Focus World, p. 175, April 1991. @Penn Well Publishing Company With permission. The major characteristics of an optical isolator include isolation level, insertion loss, temperature dependence, nd size of the device. These characteristics are mainly determined by the material used in the rotator Rotating materials generally fall into three categories: the paramagnetic(such as terbium-doped borosilicate glass), the diamagnetic(such as zinc selenide), and the ferromagnetic(such as rare-earth garnets ). The first two kinds have small Verdet constants and mostly work in the visible or shorter optical wavelength range. Isolators for use with the InGaAsP semiconductor diode lasers(o=1100-1600 nm), which serve as the essential light source in optical communication, utilize the third kind, especially the yttrium-iron-garnet(YIG) crystal. A nev available ferromagnetic crystal, epitaxially grown bismuth-substituted yttrium-iron-garnet(BIG), has an order of-magnitude stronger Faraday rotation than pure YIG, and its magnetic saturation occurs at a smaller field [Matsuda et al, 1987]. The typical parameters with YIG and BIG are shown in Table 57. 1. As the major user For the purpose of integrating the optical isolator component into the same substrate with the semiconductor laser to facilitate monolithic fabrication, integrated waveguide optical isolators become one of the most exciting areas for research and development. In a waveguide isolator, the rotation of the polarization is accomplished a planar or channel waveguide. The waveguide is usually made of a magnetooptic thin film, such as YIG or BIG film, liquid phase epitaxially grown on a substrate, typically gadolinium-gallium-garnet( GGG)crystal Among the many approaches in achieving the polarization rotation, such as the 45-degree rotation type or the

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC The major characteristics of an optical isolator include isolation level, insertion loss, temperature dependence, and size of the device. These characteristics are mainly determined by the material used in the rotator. Rotating materials generally fall into three categories: the paramagnetics (such as terbium-doped borosilicate glass), the diamagnetic (such as zinc selenide), and the ferromagnetic (such as rare-earth garnets). The first two kinds have small Verdet constants and mostly work in the visible or shorter optical wavelength range. Isolators for use with the InGaAsP semiconductor diode lasers (l0 = 1100–1600 nm), which serve as the essential light source in optical communication, utilize the third kind, especially the yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) crystal. A newly available ferromagnetic crystal, epitaxially grown bismuth-substituted yttrium-iron-garnet (BIG), has an orderof-magnitude stronger Faraday rotation than pure YIG, and its magnetic saturation occurs at a smaller field [Matsuda et al., 1987]. The typical parameters with YIG and BIG are shown in Table 57.1. As the major user of optical isolators, fiber optic communication systems require different input-output packaging for the isolators. Table 57.2 lists the characteristics of the isolators according to specific applications [Wilson, 1991]. For the purpose of integrating the optical isolator component into the same substrate with the semiconductor laser to facilitate monolithic fabrication, integrated waveguide optical isolators become one of the most exciting areas for research and development. In a waveguide isolator, the rotation of the polarization is accomplished in a planar or channel waveguide. The waveguide is usually made of a magnetooptic thin film, such as YIG or BIG film, liquid phase epitaxially grown on a substrate, typically gadolinium-gallium-garnet (GGG) crystals. Among the many approaches in achieving the polarization rotation, such as the 45-degree rotation type or the FIGURE 57.2 Schematic of an optical isolator. The polarization directions of forward and backward beams are shown below the schematic. TABLE 57.1 Characteristics of YIG and BIG Faraday Rotators YIG BIG Verdet constant (min/cm-Gauss) 1300 nm 10.5a –806 1550 nm 9.2 –600 Saturated magnetooptic rotation (degree/mm) 1300 nm 20.6 –136.4 1550 nm 18.5 –93.8 Thickness for 45-degree rotation (mm) 1300 nm 2.14 0.33 1550 nm 2.43 0.48 Typical insertion loss (dB) >0.4 1600 120 Magnetically tunable No Yesb a Variable. b Some BIG not tunable. Source: D.K.Wilson,“Optical isolators adapt to communication needs,” Laser Focus World, p. 175, April 1991. ©PennWell Publishing Company. With permission

TABLE 57.2 Application of Optical Isolators Wavelength Isolation Insertion Return Application Type Tunable (dB) oss(dB) Loss(dB) Fiber to fiber PI Yes/no 30-40 Fiber to fiber Ps Normally n 33-42 Single fiber PS No 38-42 Complex Complex Bulk optics ation sensitive Source: D K. wilson, "Optical isolators adapt to communication needs,Laser Focus World, p. 175, April 1991. With permission. 75 1550 FIGURE57 3 Isolation performance of four isolators centered around 1550 nm shows the effects of different configurations A single-stage isolator(curve A)reaches about-40 dB isolation, and two cascaded single-wavelength isolators(curve B)hit -80 dB. Wavelength broadening(curves C and D)can be tailored by cascading isolators tuned to different wavelengths. Source: D K. wilson, "Optical isolators adapt to communication needs, Laser Focus World, April 1991. with permission. unidirectional TE-TM mode converter type, the common point is the conversion or coupling process between the TE and TM modes of the waveguide. Although very good results have been obtained in some specific haracteristics, for example, 60-dB isolation[ Wolfe et al., 1990), the waveguide optical isolator is still very much in the research and development stage. Usually, the precise wavelength of any given semiconductor diode is uncertain. Deviation from a specified wavelength could degrade isolator performance by 1 dB/nm, and an uncertainty of 10 nm can reduce isolation isolators, tuned to different wavelengths, in tandem to provide a broadband response. Curves C and D of Fig 57.3 show that isolation and bandwidth are a function of the proximity of the wavelength peak positions. This combination of nontunable isolators has sufficiently wide spectral bandwidth to accommodate normal wavelength variations found in typical diode lasers. In addition, because the laser wavelength depends on its berating temperature, thi dened spectral bandwidth widens the operating temperature range without The factors that limit isolation are found in both the polarizers and the Faraday rotator materials. Intrinsic strain,inclusions, and surface reflections contribute to a reduction in the purity of polarization which affects c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC unidirectional TE-TM mode converter type, the common point is the conversion or coupling process between the TE and TM modes of the waveguide. Although very good results have been obtained in some specific characteristics, for example, 60-dB isolation [Wolfe et al., 1990], the waveguide optical isolator is still very much in the research and development stage. Usually, the precise wavelength of any given semiconductor diode is uncertain. Deviation from a specified wavelength could degrade isolator performance by 1 dB/nm, and an uncertainty of 10 nm can reduce isolation by 10 dB. Therefore, a tunable optical isolator is highly desirable. A typical approach is to simply place two isolators, tuned to different wavelengths, in tandem to provide a broadband response. Curves C and D of Fig. 57.3 show that isolation and bandwidth are a function of the proximity of the wavelength peak positions. This combination of nontunable isolators has sufficiently wide spectral bandwidth to accommodate normal wavelength variations found in typical diode lasers. In addition, because the laser wavelength depends on its operating temperature, this broadened spectral bandwidth widens the operating temperature range without decreasing isolation. The factors that limit isolation are found in both the polarizers and the Faraday rotator materials. Intrinsic strain, inclusions, and surface reflections contribute to a reduction in the purity of polarization which affects TABLE 57.2 Applications of Optical Isolators Wavelength Isolation Insertion Return Application Type Tunable (dB) Loss (dB) Loss (dB) Fiber to fiber PI Yes/no 30–40 1.0–2.0 > 60 Fiber to fiber PS Normally no 33–42 1.0–2.0 > 60 Single fiber PS No 38–42 Complex Complex Bulk optics PS No 38–42 0.1–0.2 PI = polarization insensitive. PS = polarization sensitive. Source: D.K. Wilson, “Optical isolators adapt to communication needs,” Laser Focus World, p. 175, April 1991. With permission. FIGURE 57.3 Isolation performance of four isolators centered around 1550 nm shows the effects of different configurations. A single-stage isolator (curve A) reaches about –40 dB isolation, and two cascaded single-wavelength isolators (curve B) hit –80 dB. Wavelength broadening (curves C and D) can be tailored by cascading isolators tuned to different wavelengths. (Source: D.K. Wilson, “Optical isolators adapt to communication needs,” Laser Focus World, April 1991. With permission.)

isolation. About 40 dB is the average isolation for today's materials in a single- isolator stage. If two isolators re cascaded in tandem, it is possible to double the isolation value Finally, an optical circulator [Fletcher and Weisman, 1965] can be designed by replacing the polarizers in a conventional isolator configuration with a pair of calcite polarizing prisms. a laser beam is directed through a calcite prism, then through a Faraday rotator material which rotates the polarization plane by 45 degrees, then through a second calcite prism set to pass polarization at 45 degrees. Any reflection beyond this second calcite prism returns through the second prism, is rotated by another 45 degrees through the Faraday material, and because its polarization is now 90 degrees from the incident beam, is deflected by the first calcite prism. The four ports of the circulator then are found as follows: (1)the incident beam, (2)the exit beam, (3)the deflected beam from the first calcite prism, and (4)the deflected beam from the second calcite prism. MSW-Based Guided-Wave Magnetooptic Bragg Cell When a ferrimagnet is placed in a sufficiently large externally applied dc magnetic field, Ho, the ferrimagnetic materials become magnetically saturated to produce a saturation magnetization 4TM. Under this condition each individual magnetic dipole will precess in resonance with frequency fre=yHo where y is the gyromagnetic ratio(y=2. 8 MHz/Oe). However, due to the dipole-dipole coupling and quantum mechanical exchange coupling, the collective interactions among neighboring magnetic dipole moments produce a continuum spectrum of precession modes or spin waves at frequency bands near fres. Exchange-free spin wave spectra obtained under the magnetostatic approximation are known as magnetostatic waves(MSWs)[Ishak, 1988]. In essence, MSWs are relatively slow propagating, dispersive, magnetically dominated electromagnetic(EM)waves which exist in biased ferrites at microwave frequencies(2-20 GHz). In a ferrimagnetic film with a finite thickness, such as a YIG thin film epitaxially grown on a nonmagnetic substrate such as GGG, MSw modes are classified into three types: magnetostatic surface wave(MSSw), magnetostatic forward volume wave (MSFVW), and magnetostatic backward volume wave(MSBvW), depending on the orientation of the dc magnetic field with respect to the film plane and the propagation direction of the MSw. At a constant dc magnetic field, each type of mode only exists in a certain frequency band. An important feature of MSw that these frequency bands can be simply tuned by changing the dc magnetic field. As a result of the Faraday rotation effect and Cotton-Mouton effect, the magnetization associated with MSWs will induce a perturbation in the dielectric tensor. When MSw propagates in the YIG film, it induces a moving optical grating which facilitates the diffraction of an incident guided light beam. If the so-called Bragg condition is satisfied between the incident guided light and the MSw-induced optical grating, Bragg diffraction takes place. An optical device built based on this principle is called the magnetooptic Bragg cell [Tsai and Young, 1990] A typical MSFVW-based noncollinear coplanar guided-wave magnetooptic Bragg cell is schematically show Fig. 57.4. Here a homogeneous dc bias magnetic field is applied along the Z axis to excite a Y-propagating MSFvW generated by a microstrip line transducer With a guided lightwave coupled into the YIG waveguide and propagating along the X axis, a portion of the lightwave is Bragg-diffracted and mode-converted (te to TM mode and vice versa). The Bragg-diffracted light is scanned in the waveguide plane as the frequency of the MSFVW is tuned. Figure 57.5 shows the scanned light spots by tuning the frequency at a constant dc magnetic field MSW-based guided-wave magnetooptic Bragg cell is analogous to surface aco ve( SAW)-based guided wave acoustooptic(AO) Bragg cell and has the potential to significantly enhance a wide variety of integrated optical applications which had previously been implemented with SAW. These include TE-TM mode converter, ectrum analyzer, convolvers/correlators, optical frequency shifters, tunable narrowband optical filters, and optical beam scanners/switches[Young, 1989]. In comparison to their AO counterparts, the MSw-based magnetooptic Bragg cell modules may possess the following unique advantages: (1)A much larger range of tunable carrier frequencies(2-20 GHz, for example)may be readily obtained by varying a dc magnetic field Such high and tunable carrier frequencies with the magnetooptic device modules allow direct processing at the carrier frequency of wide-band RF signals rather than indirect processing via frequency down-conversion, as is required with the ao device modules. (2)A large magnetooptic bandwidth may be realized by means of a simpler transducer geometry.(3)Much higher and electronically tunable modulation/switching and scanning speeds are possible as the velocity of propagation for the MSw is higher than that of SAw by one to two orde of magnitude, depending upon the dc magnetic field and the carrier frequency c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC isolation. About 40 dB is the average isolation for today’s materials in a single-isolator stage. If two isolators are cascaded in tandem, it is possible to double the isolation value. Finally, an optical circulator [Fletcher and Weisman, 1965] can be designed by replacing the polarizers in a conventional isolator configuration with a pair of calcite polarizing prisms. A laser beam is directed through a calcite prism, then through a Faraday rotator material which rotates the polarization plane by 45 degrees, then through a second calcite prism set to pass polarization at 45 degrees. Any reflection beyond this second calcite prism returns through the second prism, is rotated by another 45 degrees through the Faraday material, and, because its polarization is now 90 degrees from the incident beam, is deflected by the first calcite prism. The four ports of the circulator then are found as follows: (1) the incident beam, (2) the exit beam, (3) the deflected beam from the first calcite prism, and (4) the deflected beam from the second calcite prism. MSW-Based Guided-Wave Magnetooptic Bragg Cell When a ferrimagnet is placed in a sufficiently large externally applied dc magnetic field, H0, the ferrimagnetic materials become magnetically saturated to produce a saturation magnetization 4pMS. Under this condition, each individual magnetic dipole will precess in resonance with frequency fres = gH0 where g is the gyromagnetic ratio (g = 2.8 MHz/Oe). However, due to the dipole–dipole coupling and quantum mechanical exchange coupling, the collective interactions among neighboring magnetic dipole moments produce a continuum spectrum of precession modes or spin waves at frequency bands near fres. Exchange-free spin wave spectra obtained under the magnetostatic approximation are known as magnetostatic waves (MSWs) [Ishak, 1988]. In essence, MSWs are relatively slow propagating, dispersive, magnetically dominated electromagnetic (EM) waves which exist in biased ferrites at microwave frequencies (2–20 GHz). In a ferrimagnetic film with a finite thickness, such as a YIG thin film epitaxially grown on a nonmagnetic substrate such as GGG, MSW modes are classified into three types: magnetostatic surface wave (MSSW), magnetostatic forward volume wave (MSFVW), and magnetostatic backward volume wave (MSBVW), depending on the orientation of the dc magnetic field with respect to the film plane and the propagation direction of the MSW. At a constant dc magnetic field, each type of mode only exists in a certain frequency band. An important feature of MSW is that these frequency bands can be simply tuned by changing the dc magnetic field. As a result of the Faraday rotation effect and Cotton-Mouton effect, the magnetization associated with MSWs will induce a perturbation in the dielectric tensor. When MSW propagates in the YIG film, it induces a moving optical grating which facilitates the diffraction of an incident guided light beam. If the so-called Bragg condition is satisfied between the incident guided light and the MSW-induced optical grating, Bragg diffraction takes place. An optical device built based on this principle is called the magnetooptic Bragg cell [Tsai and Young, 1990]. A typical MSFVW-based noncollinear coplanar guided-wave magnetooptic Bragg cell is schematically shown in Fig. 57.4. Here a homogeneous dc bias magnetic field is applied along the Z axis to excite a Y-propagating MSFVW generated by a microstrip line transducer. With a guided lightwave coupled into the YIG waveguide and propagating along the X axis, a portion of the lightwave is Bragg-diffracted and mode-converted (TE to TM mode and vice versa). The Bragg-diffracted light is scanned in the waveguide plane as the frequency of the MSFVW is tuned. Figure 57.5 shows the scanned light spots by tuning the frequency at a constant dc magnetic field. MSW-based guided-wave magnetooptic Bragg cell is analogous to surface acoustic wave (SAW)-based guidedwave acoustooptic (AO) Bragg cell and has the potential to significantly enhance a wide variety of integrated optical applications which had previously been implemented with SAW. These include TE-TM mode converter, spectrum analyzer, convolvers/correlators, optical frequency shifters, tunable narrowband optical filters, and optical beam scanners/switches [Young, 1989]. In comparison to their AO counterparts, the MSW-based magnetooptic Bragg cell modules may possess the following unique advantages: (1) A much larger range of tunable carrier frequencies (2–20 GHz, for example) may be readily obtained by varying a dc magnetic field. Such high and tunable carrier frequencies with the magnetooptic device modules allow direct processing at the carrier frequency of wide-band RF signals rather than indirect processing via frequency down-conversion, as is required with the AO device modules. (2) A large magnetooptic bandwidth may be realized by means of a simpler transducer geometry. (3) Much higher and electronically tunable modulation/switching and scanning speeds are possible as the velocity of propagation for the MSW is higher than that of SAW by one to two orders of magnitude, depending upon the dc magnetic field and the carrier frequency

SFVW 4-8.8mm- GGG Substrate FIGURE 57. 4 Experimental arrangement for scanning of guided-light beam in YIG-GGG waveguide using magnetostatic forward waves FIGURE 57.5 Deflected light spots obtained by varying the carrier frequency of MSFVW around 6 GHz. Magnetooptic Recording The write/erase mechanism of the magnetooptical (MO)recording system is based on a thermomagnetic process in a perpendicularly magnetized magnetooptic film. a high-power pulsed laser is focused to heat up a small area on the magnetooptic medium. The coercive force of the Mo layer at room temperature is much greater than that of a conventional non-MO magnetic recording medium. However, this coercive force is greath reduced when the heated spot is raised to a critical temperature. Application of a bias magnetic field can then easily reverse the polarization direction of the Mo layer within the heated spot. As a result a very small magnetic domain with magnetization opposite to that of the surrounding area is generated. This opposite magnetic domain will persist when the temperature of the medium is lowered. The magnetization-reversed spot represents one bit of stored data. To erase data, the same thermal process can be applied while reversing the direction of the bias magnetic field. To read the stored information optically, the Kerr effect is used to detect the presence of these very small magnetic domains within the MO layer. When a low-power polarized laser beam is reflected by the perpen dicularly oriented MO medium, the polarization angle is twisted through a small angle ep the Kerr rotation Furthermore, the direction of this twist is either clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the orientation of the perpendicular magnetic moment, which is either upward or downward. Therefore, as the read beam scans across an oppositely magnetized domain from the surrounding medium, there is a total change of 202 in the polarization directions from the reflected beam coming from the two distinct regions. Reading is done by detecting this phase difference. The MO recording medium is one of the most important elements in a high-performance MO data-storage system. In order to achieve fast writing and erasing functions, a large Kerr rotation is required to produce an c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC Magnetooptic Recording The write/erase mechanism of the magnetooptical (MO) recording system is based on a thermomagnetic process in a perpendicularly magnetized magnetooptic film. A high-power pulsed laser is focused to heat up a small area on the magnetooptic medium. The coercive force of the MO layer at room temperature is much greater than that of a conventional non-MO magnetic recording medium. However, this coercive force is greatly reduced when the heated spot is raised to a critical temperature. Application of a bias magnetic field can then easily reverse the polarization direction of the MO layer within the heated spot.As a result, a very small magnetic domain with magnetization opposite to that of the surrounding area is generated. This opposite magnetic domain will persist when the temperature of the medium is lowered. The magnetization-reversed spot represents one bit of stored data. To erase data, the same thermal process can be applied while reversing the direction of the bias magnetic field. To read the stored information optically, the Kerr effect is used to detect the presence of these very small magnetic domains within the MO layer. When a low-power polarized laser beam is reflected by the perpendicularly oriented MO medium, the polarization angle is twisted through a small angle qk, the Kerr rotation. Furthermore, the direction of this twist is either clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the orientation of the perpendicular magnetic moment, which is either upward or downward. Therefore, as the read beam scans across an oppositely magnetized domain from the surrounding medium, there is a total change of 2qk in the polarization directions from the reflected beam coming from the two distinct regions. Reading is done by detecting this phase difference. The MO recording medium is one of the most important elements in a high-performance MO data-storage system. In order to achieve fast writing and erasing functions, a large Kerr rotation is required to produce an FIGURE 57.4 Experimental arrangement for scanning of guided-light beam in YIG-GGG waveguide using magnetostatic forward waves. FIGURE 57.5 Deflected light spots obtained by varying the carrier frequency of MSFVW around 6 GHz

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