《社会工作伦理》课程重要文献（英文）：Social Work Today - PUBLIC WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

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PUBLIC WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK Contributions to th ere cil protea working pro gamer co oferbfces kin m gs g ind progres in og di cial results of study and research 6x熄炒孤总郑孤总郑 SOCIAL WORK TODAY HELEN I. CLARKE University of wisconsin instead of servants. a depression and a war have HAT are some of the highlights in social made that point of view anachronistic. Today work today and where does the pro- social work is less self-conscious and introspective fession seem to be going? There are and more aware of its place in a larger setting developments which are of major importance to Its objectives include not only providing technical the profession and to broad community welfare: skills to individuals with problems but also the there are others which are less so. Both dema prevention of distress. This implies knowledge attention but first let us consider those which of economic and social conditions and of national appear to have greatest significance. It seems the writer that there are four developments in social Innumerable illustrations might be given to work which are important for the total welfare of make this point. For example, the Emergency human beings and not just for social work per- Committee for Social Work comprised of seventy formance. They are:(1)the revived interest of social workers from all over the country, published social workers in social movements, social action, in the April 1944 Compass an article entitled To Social Workers: A Call to Action. Their objectives social work; (3)the adaptation of social work to for social action are as follows: (1)full development settings;(4)the weaving of the profession of and equitable distribution of national and inter social work into the community fabric. Let us national resources;(2)full employment and bal consider briefly each of these points. anced wage price system; 3)extension of education First. Social work is experiencing revitalization health services, housing, recreation, and socia/ It is looking at itself critically and constructively: security,(4)racial and ethnic equality. At least is adapting itself to a rapidly changing milieu; two meetings at Cleveland during the 1944 Na and it is restating its philosophy. In the early tional Conference of Social Work were given over years of what we now call social work, in the last this subject quarter of the nineteenth century, the leaders, not Again illustrative of the emphasis on causation yet having formulated many techniques, did not and prevention of social and personal problems are worry too much about them but put major em- the topics of some of the speeches given at Cleve- phasis on the social situation of the persons with land, such as: "War and the Social Services, "by whom they worked. If the environment was in. Elizabeth Wisner, President of the Conference adequate and unsatisfactory, they had the courag with her emphasis on the need for full employment fearlessly to expose it and to attempt its change In time, however, almost total consideration was P M magazine with his emphasis on the three goal given to techniques and methods, an inevitable and most wanted by our Armed Forces: a busy America even desirable phase of any profession provided the a warless world, a belief or faith; " The Social forest is not lost sight of, which unfortunately hap- Responsibility of Labor in Postwar Society"by two pened in social work. Techniques became masters labor leaders from the aF of L and the CIO

PUBLIC WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK Contributions to this Department will include material of three kinds: (a) original discussion, suggestion, plans, programs, and thei_,J orics; (2)ureprs of ;,ecl ' peojects, working programs, conferences and meetings, and progress in any distcictive aspect of the ied; (3) sg pecial results of study an eerch. SOCIAL WORK TODAY HELEN I. CLARKE University of Wisconsin INTRODUCTION W HAT are some of the highlights in social work today and where does the profession seem to be going? There are developments which are of major importance to the profession and to broad community welfare; there are others which are less so. Both demand attention but first let us consider those which appear to have greatest significance. It seems to the writer that there are four developments in social work which are important for the total welfare of human beings and not just for social work performance. They are: (1) the revived interest of social workers in social movements, social action, social reform; (2) the cooperation of labor and social work; (3) the adaptation of social work to new settings; (4) the weaving of the profession of social work into the community fabric. Let us consider briefly each of these points. First. Social work is experiencing revitalization. It is looking at itself critically and constructively; it is adapting itself to a rapidly changing milieu; and it is restating its philosophy. In the early years of what we now call social work, in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the leaders, not yet having formulated many techniques, did not worry too much about them but put major emphasis on the social situation of the persons with whom they worked. If the environment was inadequate and unsatisfactory, they had the courage fearlessly to expose it and to attempt its change. In time, however, almost total consideration was given to techniques and methods, an inevitable and even desirable phase of any profession provided the forest is not lost sight of, which unfortunately happened in social work. Techniques became masters instead of servants. A depression and a war have made that point of view anachronistic. Today social work is less self-conscious and introspective and more aware of its place in a larger setting. Its objectives include not only providing technical skills to individuals with problems but also the prevention of distress. This implies knowledge of economic and social conditions and of national and international problems. Innumerable illustrations might be given to make this point. For example, the Emergency Committee for Social Work comprised of seventy social workers from all over the country, published in the April 1944 Compass an article entitled To Social Workers: A Call to Action. Their objectives for social action are as follows: (1) full development and equitable distribution of national and international resources; (2) full employment and balanced wage price system; (3) extension of education, health services, housing, recreation, and social security, (4) racial and ethnic equality. At least two meetings at Cleveland during the 1944 National Conference of Social Work were given over to this subject. Again illustrative of the emphasis on causation and prevention of social and personal problems are the topics of some of the speeches given at Cleveland, such as: "War and the Social Services," by Elizabeth Wisner, President of the Conference, with her emphasis on the need for full employment; "A Nation Worthy of Heroes" by Max Lerner of P M magazine with his emphasis on the three goals most wanted by our Armed Forces: a busy America, a warless world, a belief or faith; "The Social Responsibility of Labor in Postwar Society" by two labor leaders from the AF of L and the CIO; 178

PUBLIC WELFARE 179 'Needed Amendments to the Social Security Act social work. In the language of Dr. Ellen Potter and Their Achievement" by James E. Murray, 1944-45 President of the National Conference of co-author of the Wagner- Murray-Dingell Bill; Social Work, "From the point of view of the in- A Health Program for the Nation""by Michael M. coming President, the most profoundly significant Davis, Chairman of the Committee on Research development [at the Cleveland meetings] was the in Medical Economics; "International Migration: presence of organized labor in strength, AF of L Displaced Persons"by Mary E. Hurlbutt, of the and CIO registering as members, attending meet New York School of Social Work;"Equality of ings, speaking from the floor, asking pertinent Opportunity""by Lester B. Granger, Secretary of questions and speaking formally from several the National Urban league. platforms. The Joint Committee of Trade Lin, Gordon Hamilton, an outstanding case Unions in Social Work and The National Social worker and teacher in the New York School of Service Division of the United Office and Pro- Social Work, in a recent article in the Social Service fessional Workers of America are strong forces Review placed a strong emphasis on the need for especially in the east, in welding closer this rela reconceiving the curriculum of schools of social tionship A strong precipitating factor in this work in terms of world human needs. In such welding process has been joint participation in war planning she believes it necessary that the subject relief campaigns but the depression hastened an matter, philosophy, and technical skills be related inter-group consciousness. Labor and social work to a positive program for an adequate standard of share the same interest in the common man- living, to a world point of view, and to a philosophy his economic, social, and political welfare wherever of racial and cultural democracy. In her words, he may be. It is inevitable that labor and social Our students must assimilate fully the tremendous work organizations increasingly work together and concepts of rights, of needs, of responsibilities, of often in the face of opposition from politicians tolerance, self-direction and participation and boards of directors and vested interests. It is translate these tremendous concepts into skills. quite possible that some such heckling group as l of this seems to indicate that the social the dies Committee will come forth with the ac worker is again willing to be a reformer-not in cusation that the labor movement is the left wing the sense of muckraker or uninformed zealot or of social work or social work the right wing of bigoted missionary, but in the sense of combining labor. The truth of the matter is that because of knowledge of facts with a faith that a better world similarity of objectives there must be a closer tie-up can be achieved. There need not be a separation between these two large organized groups. It is between good professional practice and earnest even possible that from these two groups will come striving for a good life anymore than what Harold the main pressures for directed social change Laski calls the divorce between scholarship and Third and fourth. Since these developments will te. In his words, The abyss which separates the be discussed in considerable detail in the body of ntellectuals of the main world of scholarship, this paper it is unnecessary to do more than briefly above all in the academic world, from the main refer to them here. The methodologies problems of their time is as grave in its implications of social work, case work, group work, and com s it is wide in its extent 3 munity organization are making striking adjust Carr-Saunders and wilson in their book, The ments to changing conditions and are doing it far Professions regret that the professions make more easily than they did during the depression progress but only in their own grooves, that they The tremendous amount of attention that has been do not grasp the essential features of social and given to social work skills and to the broad social economic situations, that they treat superficially services since 1930, means that there is less resis- the remainder of life outside their special activities. tance today to the profession, in part because social own organizations not only for the consideration doxically have become better technicians, and in of technical problems but for the determination of part because the people who need the social serv- the place of the particular professional group in ices understand them and want them. Even the society. This is now being done by numbers Army has found itself using case workers, whom it calls fiele Second. The next development, and directly physical, and social histories on potential indue linked with the first, is the alliance of labor and tees. Although social workers are still ridiculed

PUBLIC WELFARE 179 "Needed Amendments to the Social Security Act and Their Achievement" by James E. Murray, co-author of the Wagner-Murray-Dingell Bill; "A Health Program for the Nation" by Michael M. Davis, Chairman of the Committee on Research in Medical Economics; "International Migration: Displaced Persons" by Mary E. Hurlbutt, of the New York School of Social Work; "Equality of Opportunity" by Lester B. Granger, Secretary of the National Urban League. Again, Gordon Hamilton, an outstanding case worker and teacher in the New York School of Social Work, in a recent article in the Social Service Review placed a strong emphasis on the need for reconceiving the curriculum of schools of social work in terms of world human needs. In such planning she believes it necessary that the subject matter, philosophy, and technical skills be related to a positive program for an adequate standard of living, to a world point of view, and to a philosophy of racial and cultural democracy. In her words, "Our students must assimilate fully the tremendous concepts of rights, of needs, of responsibilities, of tolerance, self-direction and participation and translate these tremendous concepts into skills." All of this seems to indicate that the social worker is again willing to be a reformer-not in the sense of muckraker or uninformed zealot or bigoted missionary, but in the sense of combining a knowledge of facts with a faith that a better world can be achieved. There need not be a separation between good professional practice and earnest striving for a good life anymore than what Harold Laski calls the divorce between scholarship and life. In his words, "The abyss which separates the intellectuals of the main world of scholarship, above all in the academic world, from the main problems of their time is as grave in its implications as it is wide in its extent." Carr-Saunders and Wilson in their book, The Professions regret that the professions make progress but only in their own grooves, that they do not grasp the essential features of social and economic situations, that they treat superficially the remainder of life outside their special activities. The remedy for this lack of vision is the use of their own organizations not only for the consideration of technical problems but for the determination of the place of the particular professional group in society. This is now being done by numbers of social work groups. Second. The next development, and directly linked with the first, is the alliance of labor and social work. In the language of Dr. Ellen Potter, 1944-45 President of the National Conference of Social Work, "From the point of view of the incoming President, the most profoundly significant development [at the Cleveland meetings] was the presence of organized labor in strength, AF of L and CIO registering as members, attending meetings, speaking from the floor, asking pertinent questions and speaking formally from several platforms." The Joint Committee of Trade Unions in Social Work and The National Social Service Division of the United Office and Professional Workers of America are strong forces, especially in the east, in welding closer this relationship. A strong precipitating factor in this welding process has been joint participation in war relief campaigns but the depression hastened an inter-group consciousness. Labor and social work share the same interest in the common man-in his economic, social, and political welfare wherever he may be. It is inevitable that labor and social work organizations increasingly work together and often in the face of opposition from politicians, boards of directors, and vested interests. It is quite possible that some such heckling group as the Dies Committee will come forth with the accusation that the labor movement is the left wing of social work or social work the right wing of labor. The truth of the matter is that because of similarity of objectives there must be a closer tie-up between these two large organized groups. It is even possible that from these two groups will come the main pressures for directed social change. Third and fourth. Since these developments will be discussed in considerable detail in the body of this paper it is unnecessary to do more than briefly refer to them here. The various methodologies of social work, case work, group work, and community organization are making striking adjustments to changing conditions and are doing it far more easily than they did during the depression. The tremendous amount of attention that has been given to social work skills and to the broad social services since 1930, means that there is less resistance today to the profession, in part because social workers are not so technique-minded and paradoxically have become better technicians, and in part because the people who need the social services understand them and want them. Even the Army has found itself using case workers, whom it ambiguously calls field agents, to gather mental, physical, and social histories on potential inductees. Although social workers are still ridiculed or

SOCIAL FORCES berated, and although relatively few people have period when it considers realities other than itself. much insight into their purposes and processes, Dr Ellen Potter made a similar observation when there is general acceptance of their indispensability whe wrote in a little article, "The President Speaks and the war is greatly increasing both acceptance her mind. in the July Conference Bulletin, "There and understanding was a shift in emphasis in the section programs [of the 1944 National Conference of Social Workl which was of historic significance. Case work did Having set out a brief general introductory state- not hold the spotlight to the same degree as in ment of developments and challenges in social recent years. Its techniques and psychiatric re- work, let us now proceed to observe activities and ements gave place to adaptation of skill to new trends in the areas of case work, group work, com. needs, in new settings, and shortcuts to goals which munity organization, public welfare administration must be quickly reached. " The present most significant developments Until very recently such organizations as The case work appear to be three: (1)counseling::(2) American Association of Social Workers and the extension into new fields;(3) leadership in the American Association of Schools of Social Work reconception of function built their membership and curricula requirements on the theory that the primary skills of social work marriage counseling, counseling in clinics are not are those of case work. In fact a case worker, new processes. The first has not usually been Mary Richmond, is responsible for the first com- done by professional case workers, the latter two prehensive formulation of social work and case often have. For the purposes of this paper coun workers have built additional principles. Many one individual seeking help from the other who is of these principles and techniques are equally ap. prepared to give the help without superimposition plicable to the other areas of social work. For of opinion or act. Suddenly counseling has be. example,all social workers must learn how to come a popular function, often performed by gather data, analyze, evaluate, and use it. All persons or agencies wishing to be helpful but not social workers must understand that behavior is quite knowing how. PTA's, AAUW's, Rotary symptomatic and purposive and may express deep Clubs, Junior Chambers of Commerce develop a sciously motivated; that it has a history. All social refugees, or migratory workers or whomever. It workers must appreciate the significance of the is as though there were magic in the word and hence in the activity. cultural environment to the development of per- The rapid growth of counseling in both new and sonality. All must recognize that the family as a old settings as in unions and in industry, in the unit of interacting personalities, is the primary administration of the social insurances, in employ- institution in the formation of personality and character. All must develop their professional ment and rehabilitation agencies, in USO's, in selves. All must believ settlements, Ys, Scout organizations, and in ciple of the right of self- determination and apply correctional institutions, inevitably means much it. Such principles as these permeate social work nadequate and some competent service. Many of activity and are part of the daily performance of the people in these organizations are counseling in all social workers. Case work has been the meal the sense of prescribing and dictating, not in the by which many of these ideas have seeped throu ense of helping the client work all professional social work practice. destiny. The principles of case work should be the principles of counseling or in other wo is case work most frequently on a short contact limelight today as ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago. basis. It seems clear that counseling will come to This is undoubtedly due to many factors, in part be considered an aspect of case work if case workers ecause the other areas of performance are more function unobtrusively and without smug superi- aware of the contributions they have to make and ority of language, performance, and principle re making them, and in part because the youthful Second. Case work has always been phase of case work when it talked and thought numerous settings. The recent rapid extension of constantly of itself is superseded by a more adult case work to new fields has come about largely

180 SOCIAL FORCES berated, and although relatively few people have much insight into their purposes and processes, there is general acceptance of their indispensability and the war is greatly increasing both acceptance and understanding. CASE WORK Having set out a brief general introductory statement of developments and challenges in social work, let us now proceed to observe activities and trends in the areas of case work, group work, community organization, public welfare administration and social action. Until very recently such organizations as The American Association of Social Workers and the American Association of Schools of Social Work built their membership and curricula requirements on the theory that the primary skills of social work are those of case work. In fact a case worker, Mary Richmond, is responsible for the first comprehensive formulation of social work and case work principles. Upon her formulation successive workers have built additional principles. Many of these principles and techniques are equally applicable to the other areas of social work. For example, all social workers must learn how to gather data, analyze, evaluate, and use it. All social workers must understand that behavior is symptomatic and purposive and may express deep conflict; that it may be consciously or unconsciouslymotivated;that it hasa history. All social workers must appreciate the significance of the cultural environment to the development of personality. All must recognize that the family as a unit of interacting personalities\ is the primary institution in the formation of personality and character. All must develop their professional 'selves. All must believe in the democratic principle of the right of self-determination and apply it. Such principles as these permeate social work activity and are part of the daily perforrmance of all social workers. Case work has been the means by which many of these ideas have seeped through all professional social-work practice. Case work, however, is not occupying the same limelight today as ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago. This is undoubtedly due to many factors, in part because the other areas of performance are more aware of the contributions they have to make and are making them, and in part because the youthful phase of case work when it talked and thought constantly of itself is superseded by a more adult period when it considers realities other than itself. Dr. Ellen Potter made a similar observation when whe wrote in a little article, "The President Speaks her mind." in the July Conference Bulletin, "There was a shift in emphasis in the section programs [of the 1944 National Conference of Social Work] which was of historic significance. Case work did not hold the spotlight to the samne degree as in recent years. Its techniques and psychiatric refinements gave place to adaptation of skill to new, needs, in new settings, and shortcuts to goals which must be quickly reached." The present most significant developments in case work appear to be three: (1) counseling; (2) extension into new fields; (3) leadership in the reconception of function. First. Vocational and industrial counseling, marriage counseling, counseling in clinics are not newy processes. The first has not usually been done by professional case workers, the latter two often have. For the purposes of this paper counseling means a person to person relationship with one individual seeking help from the other who is prepared to give the help without superimposition of opinion or act. Suddenly counseling has become a popular function, often performed by persons or agencies wishing to be helpful but not quite knowing how. PTA's, AAUW's, Rotary Clubs, Junior Chambers of Commerce develop a counseling program for soldiers or soldiers' wives, refugees, or migratory workers or whomever. It is as though there were magic in the word and hence in the activity. The rapid growth of counseling in both new and old settings as in unions and in industry, in the administration of the social insurances, in employment and rehabilitation agencies, in USO's, in settlements, Y's, Scout organizations, and in correctional institutions, inevitably means much inadequate and some competent service. Many of the people in these organizations are counseling in the sense of prescribing and dictating, not in the sense of helping the client work out his own destiny. The principles of case work should be the principles of counseling or in other words, counseling is case work most frequently on a short contact basis. It seems clear that counseling will come to be considered an aspect of case work if case workers function unobtrusively and without smug superiority of language, performance, and principle. Second. Case work has always been used in numerous settings. The recent rapid extension of case work to new fields has come about largely

PUBLIC WELFARE hrough the expansion of counseling just discussed. seems clear that recreation workers who are usually Perhaps the most important extension of case work considered to have a program-centered interest and methods is taking place in labor unions, in war group workers a person-centered interest cannot nurseries both in the admission and in well do without the other. Even such organiza- the treatment of the children themselves, in uso tions as the Uso, where most of the activities are clubs and in USO Travelers Aids, in public housing planned for participation by thousands of service ventures, in the rehabilitation agencies, in informa- men, carries on group work activities. Not onl tion centers for returning veterans, and with the are some of the activities adapted to small numbers old services of the Red Cross including Home of participants but many leaders consciously and Service and medical social service. In most of carefully employ the techniques of group work. these areas the contacts of the case worker n a uso known to the writer, which makes some counselor are short and considerable adaptation of 50,000 contacts a month, one staff member trained techniques is in peace-time group work gives special attention to Third. The expansion of the horizons of social craft, music, art and discussion groups; incidentally work, referred to in the introduction of this paper, he is the most resourceful member of the staff in has been precipitated in large part by case workers. planning programs for the multitudes This is not to say that there are no leaders in this Third, a tremendous growth of interest in rec- new activity from the areas of group work and reation, particularly youth activities and largely community organization but that numbers of work- because of greatly increased delinquency. Hun- ers from the case work area, as Bertha Reynolds dreds of communities have not only expanded Gordon Hamilton, Fern Lowry, Clara Rabinowitz existing recreation and group work resources, but Antoinette Cannon, Dorothy Kahn, Constance have set up youth centers and councils. Innum Kyle, took the initiative in drawing attention to erable articles on youth activities with a juvenile the interrelation of person and environment before delinquency-prevention emphasis appear in maga the revived interest in consciously directed social zines of as divergent types as, The survey, recrea- change virtually became a social movement. tion, Time, Life, Vogue, Mademoiselle. Evidence Even though that proportion of the total number accumulates that police departments throughout of case workers performing this function is small, the country are becoming increasingly interested still it is the case worker who has helped give new in the provision of recreation as one method of dimensions to the familiar social work job. preventing delinquency. Interest in leisure time activities for youth as a GROUP WORK hat are the most significant developments in emphasized that some communities are in danger ocial group work? They are several: First, the of forgetting that younger children, adults, and recent careful formulation of methods and prin- the aged also have recreational interests and needs. ciples, a phase which case work has been going This overemphasis is not so likely to occur in those through since 1917 and the publication of Social communities which appreciate that the teen Diagnosis. Such books as Newe Trends in Group canteen should be managed by youth and only Work, Studies in Group Behavior, Creative Group sponsered by adults, that the youth center is only Education illustrate this development. None has a part of a total community leisure-time program, yet done for group work and social work what that such purposes as relaxation and rest, person ial Diagnosis did for case work and social work. ality growth, the expansion of interest horizons are The creation of the American Association for the as important as delinquency prevention. It is Study of Group Work, comprised of anyone in- probably true, however, that too many people have terested in the field, and its organ, The GrouP, have benefited by new or expanded programs and by the focused attention on professional group work wide use of such resources as schools and churches blems and now there js discussion of forming for leisure time activities to experience sudden n organization comprised exclusively of pro- diminution in the postwar period. What form fessional group workers that interest will take and its extent are difficult Second, the mutual understanding of group work- to predict, but it does seem clear that many ers and recreation workers, who may or may not hitherto uninterested persons now believe that be competent in both areas of performance. It both public and private funds should be provided

PUBLIC WELFARE 181 through the expansion of counseling just discussed. Perhaps the most important extension of case work methods is taking place in labor unions, in war nurseries both in the admission processes and in the treatment of the children themselves, in USO clubs and in USO Travelers Aids, in public housing ventures, in the rehabilitation agencies, in information centers for returning veterans, and with the old services of the Red Cross including Home Service and medical social service. In most of these areas the contacts of the case worker or counselor are short and considerable adaptation of techniques is necessary. Third. The expansion of the horizons of social work, referred to in the introduction of this paper, has been precipitated in large part by case workers. This is not to say that there are no leaders in this new activity from the areas of group work and community organization but that numbers of workers from the case work area, as Bertha Reynolds, Gordon Hamilton, Fern Lowry, Clara Rabinowitz Antoinette Cannon, Dorothy Kahn, Constance Kyle, took the initiative in drawing attention to the interrelation of person and environment before the revived interest in consciously directed social change virtually became a social movement. Even though that proportion of the total number of case workers performing this function is small, still it is the case worker who has helped give new dimensions to the familiar social work job. GROUP WORK What are the most significant developments in social group work? They are several: First, the recent careful formulation of methods and principles, a phase which case work has been going through since 1917 and the publication of Social Diagnosis. Such books as New Trends in Group Work, Studies in Group Behavior, Creative Group Education illustrate this development. None has yet done for group work and social work what Social Diagnosis did for case work and social work. The creation of the American Association for the Study of Group Work, comprised of anyone interested in the field, and its organ, The Group, have focused attention on professional group work problems and now there is discussion of forming an organization comprised exclusively of professional group workers. Second, the mutual understanding of group workers and recreation workers, who may or may not be competent in both areas of performance. It seems clear that recreation workers who are usuallv considered to have a program-centered interest and group workers a person-centered interest cannot well do without the other. Even such organizations as the USO, where most of the activities are planned for participation by thousands of service men, carries on group work activities. Not only are some of the activities adapted to small numbers of participants but many leaders consciously and carefully employ the techniques of group work. In a USO known to the writer, which makes some 50,000 contacts a month, one staff member trained in peace-time group work gives special attention to craft, music, art and discussion groups; incidentally he is the most resourceful member of the staff in planning programs for the multitudes. Third, a tremendous growth of interest in recreation, particularly youth activities and largely because of greatly increased delinquency. Hundreds of communities have not only expanded existing recreation and group work resources, but have set up youth centers and councils. Innumerable articles on youth activities with a juveniledelinquency-prevention emphasis appear in magazines of as divergent types as, The Survey, Recreation, Time, Life, Vogue, Mademoiselle. Evidence accumulates that police departments throughout the country are becoming increasingly interested in the provision of recreation as one method of preventing delinquency. Interest in leisure time activities for youth as a means of preventing delinquency has been so emphasized that some communities are in danger of forgetting that younger children, adults, and the aged also have recreational interests and needs. This overemphasis is not so likely to occur in those communities which appreciate that the teencanteen should be managed by youth and only sponsered by adults, that the youth center is only a part of a total community leisure-time program, that such purposes as relaxation and rest, personality growth, the expansion of interest horizons are as important as delinquency prevention. It is probablv true, however, that too many people have benefited by new or expanded programs and by the wide use of such resources as schools and churches, for leisure time activities to experience sudden dimiinution in the postwar period. What form that interest will take and its extent are difficult to predict, but it does seem clear that many hitherto uninterested persons now believe that both public and private funds should be provided

182 SOCIAL FORCES for leisure-time activities for all age groups and for relationships, and that guidance or counseling very diverse interests. or individualizing is in order that the group may Fourth, extension of and adaptation of group be more effective in the life of each individual work knowledge techniques, theory to new fields member The narrative and chronological records and agencies, similar to the same development in of Grace Coyle and others show how necessary it social case work, The noticeable areas of new is, if the group is to serve an educational and re activity in recreation and group work include trade creational purpose, that the members be under unions and cooperatives, housing enterprises, stood as individuals; that the backgrounds, the military organizations, churches and student resistances and interests, the personality organiza religious centers, campus unions. To illustrate, tion be understood. This does not mean that the the University of wisconsin offers field experience leader will spend the largest part of his time frat to group work students with student churches, a ermizing with and studying individuals but that USO, a military camp, a hosteling agency, hospitals, he will observe each member of the group carefully, an industrial school for delinquent girls, and also acquire information about him, and conduct such with the older organizations as Scouts, a Settle- outside- the- group interviews as seem necessary to ment, Ys, etc. Recently a student who did her make the group most beneficial field work with a capus religious center and who Sixth, the greatly expanded use of volunteers and wrote a paper on group work in churches pointed changes in the training methods of out the extent to which group work principles can professional personnel. awar be applied to the recreation and leisure time myriads of laymen into the community service programs and to the religious and educational picture This war has used millions of volunteers programs of churches. Such a new organization on selective service and ration boards, on war as the USo has been responsible for extensive chests, in Travelers Aids, youth centers,scout tooling" of group work practices. An organiza- organizations, USOs, hospitals. The large per tion that catches thousands of men on the fly must centage of these recruits will go back to their modify not only program techniques and content peace-time pursuits when the war ends; some will but also human relationships. not; many of the total will have a new appreciation e Fifth, individualization of group members. A of the knowledge and experience of professional considerable number of articles have recently been social workers. Recreation and group work have published on the contributions of group work and probably used more volunteers than any other case work to each other and on individualization area of social work activities in group work. Among these are "Methods of War-time use of volunteers has required adapta Record-Keeping of Group Behavior and Individual tion in teaching and supervisory processes. The Contacts, ""Interplay of the Insights of Case Work professional worker has had to accept less cor and Group Work"by Gertrude Wilson, "Case petent performance than he associates with pro- Work and Group Work Cooperation"by Hester fessional experience and even at times to appreciate and Thomas, " The Group in Development and the fact that laymen may perform with remarkable Therapy" by S. R. Slavson. In 1943, the book understanding and ability. Condescension and Personality and Social Group Work made its ap- impatience have no place in work with volunteer pearance. Its thesis is that group workers at- War activity also mpting to change activities and behavior in the education can be speeded up and produce informed interest of social welfare must individualize group and even adequate performance. The USO, for members very much more than has been customary. example, has taken men and women from many The introduction of an individual approach and in- different activities and after short courses sent creasedskill in the methods of guidance will immeas- them to dificult jobs involving skills in subject urably help the group worker in attaining his goals, matter, administration, and community relations. says Everett Du Vall, author of the book. Critics This need of producing professional and lay compe- have reacted negatively to the emphasis rather tency as rapidly as possible will undoubtedly con- than to the general thesis. It is agreed that tinue to affect curricula of schools of social work. the group exists for the individual and not vice Modifications include the extension of social work ersa,but it is also maintained that the primary practice into new areas of activity, a hardening of lationships in group work are not the face-to- the core of course content a closer tying together face ones of the case worker, but group-leader of social work knowledge with that of politicians

182 SOCIAL FORCES for leisure-time activities for all age groups and for very diverse interests. Fourth, extension of and adaptation of group work knowledge, techniques, theory to new fields and agencies, similar to the same development in social case work. The noticeable areas of new activity in recreation and group work include trade unions and cooperatives, housing enterprises, military organizations, churches and student religious centers, campus unions. To illustrate, the University of Wisconsin offers field experience to group work students with student churches, a USO, a military camp, a hosteling agency, hospitals, an industrial school for delinquent girls, and also with the older organizations as Scouts, a Settlement, Y's, etc. Recently a student who did her field work with a campus religious center and who wrote a paper on group work in churches pointed out the extent to which group work principles can be applied to the recreation and leisure time programs and to the religious and educational programs of churches. Such a new organization as the USO has been responsible for extensive "'retooling" of group work practices. An organization that catches thousands of men on the fly must modify not only program techniques and content but also human relationships. Fifth, individualization of group members. A considerable number of articles have recently been published on the contributions of group work and case work to each other and on individualization in group work. Among these are "Methods of Record-Keeping of Group Behavior and Individual Contacts," "Interplay of the Insights of Case Work and Group Work" by Gertrude Wilson, "Case Work and Group Work Cooperation" by Hester and Thomas, "The Group in Development and Therapy" by S. R. Slavson. In 1943, the book Personality and Social Group Work made its appearance. Its thesis is that group workers attempting to change activities and behavior in the interest of social welfare must individualize group members very much more than has been customary. The introduction of an individual approach and increased skill in the methods of guidance will immeasurably help the group worker in attaining his goals, says Everett DuVall, author of the book. Critics have reacted negatively to the emphasis rather than to the general thesis. It is agreed that the group exists for the individual and not vice versa, but it is also maintained that the primary relationships in group work are not the face-toface ones of the case worker, but group-leader relationships, and that guidance or counseling or individualizing is in order that the group may be more effective in the life of each individual member. The narrative and chronological records of Grace Coyle and others show how necessary it is, if the group is to serve an educational and recreational purpose, that the members be understood as individuals; that the backgrounds, the resistances and interests, the personality organization be understood. This does not mean that the leader will spend the largest part of his time fratemizing with and studying individuals but that he will observe each member of the group carefully, acquire information about him, and conduct such outside-the-group interviews as seem necessary to make the group most beneficial. Sixth, the greatly expanded use of volunteers and changes in the training methods of both lay and professional personnel. A war always brings myriads of laymen into the community service picture. This war has used millions of volunteers on selective service and ration boards, on war chests, in Travelers Aids, youth centers, scout organizations, USOs, hospitals. The large percentage of these recruits will go back to their peace-time pursuits when the war ends; some will not; many of the total will have a new appreciation of the knowledge and experience of profe3sional social workers. Recreation and group work have probably used more volunteers than any other area of social work activities. War-time use of volunteers has required adaptation in teaching and supervisory processes. The professional worker has had to accept less competent performance than he associates with professional experience and even at times to appreciate the fact that laymen may perform with remarkable understanding and ability. Condescension and impatience have no place in work with volunteers. War activity also has shown that professional education can be speeded up and produce informed and even adequate performance. The USO, for example, has taken men and women from many different activities and after short courses sent them to difficult jobs involving skills in subject matter, administration, and community relations. This need of producing professional and lay competency as rapidly as possible will undoubtedly continue to affect curricula of schools of social work. Modifications include the extension of social work practice into new areas of activity, a hardeniing of the core of course content, a closer tying together of social work knowledge with that of politicians

PUBLIC WELFARE 183 economists, political scientists, sociologists, psy- of war chests and have done much to integrate war relief and regular welfare activities A third development worthy of discussion here COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION is the growth in community planning. Two pri nary causative factors in this development are the The professionalization of community organiza- OCD with its stimulation of physical and social tion, like group work, is a development of the last protective resources and the multiplication of one or two decades. Although social workers have services with the attendant overlapping of costs always been active in community organization carrying on many of the processes as incidents of and personnel. The block plan of the OCD suc- cessful in relatively few communities, projected the other functions, only recently has there been any idea of neighborhood organization for agreement on a definition and any considerable communit amount of analysis of problems and techniques. war activities. The emphasis of the OCd on community and state councils and on the block There is now fairly general agreement on the nature plan focused attention on planning. The im controversy about acceptable techniques Fede anence of the organizational aspects of this Federal agency are probably due(1)to the fact Wayne Macmillan in a recent Social Service Re- that they were federally stimulated and many view article, gives a good definition of community feared that"Government"would intrude on their organization. "The primary objective of the community organization process is to help people personal lives, and(2)that the impact of the war to find ways to give expression to(their)inherent never reached large sections of the country Functional councils, councils of social agencies desires to improve the environment in which they civic planning groups, have been outgrowths of and their fellows must carry on their lives. The war interests and many of them will continue into community organization process involves relation ships between and among groups through two basic The most important public planning organiza processes, first to evoke and cultivate the inherent tion was the National Resources Planning Board desire of people to work together for community Congress was sufficiently suspicious of it to deny it the process by supplying the technical services workers know the reports of the board best through required. This then is the first major development the monumental volume, Security, Work and Relief in community organization, the acceptance of policies. It was the function of the board through definition, analysis of practice and theory, and the realization that many of the methods used are a staff of experts to obtain data on many physical common to all social work and social problems and to suggest recommenda A second major development in community tions for meeting them. It was not the function of the board to blueprint rigid plans to be inflicted organization is the rapid expansion in number of upon the people of this country as some people war chests. Sometimes this has meant an en- feared. It is to be hoped that a similar body will largement of the existing peace-time chest to in- be revived in the postwar period A fourth imp ea o mentary agency for war relief purposes. The community organization has already been referred President's War Relief Control Board, created by to, namely the activity of labor which is calling for xecutive order in July 1942, with its predecessors, more aggressive action from social workers, is smal esponsible for eliminating a large number ot seeking and obtaining representation on public and ll or unreliable foreign relief organizations attempting to raise funds in local communities, private welfare boards, and is drawing social work The National war Fund, a private corporation workers and labor are working for identical goals organized in the winter of 1942-43, is the agency of better standards of living and security for the which counsels with local communities on their bulk of the American people, social workers and war relief campaign hese two organizations, labor must coordi dinate their efforts. This the Federal agency giving its stamp of approval eloquently urged at a recent institute of Wisconsin to certain war relief agencies and the national County Public Welfare Administrators by Pro private agency stimulating local war relief cam- fessor Selig Perlman, a student of labor movements aigns are, in part, responsible for the great growth for thirty-five years. In his talk on the social

PUBLIC WELFARE 183 economists, political scientists, sociologists, psychologists. COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION The professionalization of community organization, like group work, is a development of the last one or two decades. Although social workers have always been active in community organization, carrying on many of the processes as incidents of other functions, only recently has there been any agreement on a definition and any considerable amount of analysis of problems and techniques. There is now fairly general agreement on the nature and function of community organization, but still controversy about acceptable techniques. Wayne Macmillan in a recent Social Service Review article, gives a good definition of community organization. "The primary objective of the community organization process is to help people to find ways to give expression to (their) inherent desires to improve the environment in which they and their fellows must carry on their lives." The community organization process involves relationships between and among groups through two basic processes, first to evoke and cultivate the inherent desire of people to work together for community welfare, and second to assist in the development of the process by supplying the technical services required. This then is the first major development in community organization, the acceptance of definition, analysis of practice and theory, and the realization that many of the methods used are common to all social work. A second major development in community organization is the rapid expansion in number of war chests. Sometimes this has meant an enlargement of the existing peace-time chest to include war agencies, sometimes a new and supplementary agency for war relief purposes. The President's War Relief Control Board, created by executive order in July 1942, with its predecessors, was responsible for eliminating a large number of small or unreliable foreign relief organizations attempting to raise funds in local communities. The National War Fund, a private corporation organized in the winter of 1942-43, is the agency which counsels with local communities on their war relief campaigns. These two organizations, the Federal agency giving its stamp of approval to certain war relief agencies and the national private agency stimulating local war relief campaigns are, in part, responsible for the great growth of war chests and have done much to integrate war relief and regular welfare activities. A third development worthy of discussion here is the growth in community planning. Two primary causative factors in this development are the OCD with its stimulation of physical and social protective resources and the multiplication of services with the attendant overlapping of costs and personnel. The block plan of the OCD successful in relatively few communities, projected the idea of neighborhood organization for community war activities. The emphasis of the OCD on community and state councils and on the block plan focused attention on planning. The impermanence of the organizational aspects of this Federal agency are probably due (1) to the fact that they were federally stimulated and many feared that "Government" would intrude on their personal lives, and (2) that the impact of the war never reached large sections of the country. Functional councils, councils of social agencies, civic planning groups, have been outgrowths of war interests and many of them will continue into the peace-time period. The most important public planning organization was the National Resources Planning Board. Congress was sufficiently suspicious of it to deny it appropriations and thus to abolish it. Social workers know the reports of the Board best through the monumental volume, Security, Work and Relief Policies. It was the function of the board through a staff of experts to obtain data on many physical and social problems and to suggest recommendations for meeting them. It was not the function of the board to blueprint rigid plans to be inflicted upon the people of this country as some people feared. It is to be hoped that a similar body will be revived in the postwar period. A fourth important phenomenon in the area of community organization has already been referred to, namely the activity of labor which is calling for more aggressive action from social workers, is seeking and obtaining representation on public and private welfare boards, and is drawing social work skills into its own organizations. Since social workers and labor are working for identical goals of better standards of living and security for the bulk of the American people, social workers and labor must coordinate their efforts. This was eloquently urged at a recent institute of Wisconsin County Public Welfare Administrators by Professor Selig Perlman, a student of labor movements for thirty-five years. In his talk on the social

184 SOCIAL FORCES psychology of the labor movement he showed how specific objectives and not just generous goodwill social workers as the healers of personal wounds must characterize organizations for increasing nust also interpret one group to another; an racial and religious understanding especially important function in relation to labor activities. Social workers are the general practi- PUBLIC WELFARE ADMINISTRATION tioners and family physicians working with the We have now discussed what this writer believes total person in distress and with the total com- are the most significant developments in the three which all social with, the analogous medical specialist who deals workers agree are distinctly social work skills with a segment of a persons problem and a small Whether administration in the public welfare field part of a community. Social workers, continued and social action are social work skills per se or Professor Perlman, are being required to study, are fields in and of themselves used in many other interpret, and integrate community thinking and occupations and professions is not important for activities atfour focal points: labor, housing, health, this paper. The very fact that social workers be- and veterans, and not the least of these is labor. lieve that administrators of public welfare and A fifth development is organization for increase those attempting to achieve social action in the of racial and religious understanding and for deal- areas of health and welfare should know social ing with the problems of groups having unfamiliar work from the inside out indicates that there are backgrounds and culture. Intermational migra- aspects of public welfare administration and social tion,actual and potential infiltration of refugees, action as performed by the social worker which are labor problems, courageous fighting their distinctive. Public welfare administration to this country by racial minorities are responsible for writer means administration of tax supported serious consideration of the problems of discrim- services and agencies not just for the delinquent ination. President Roosevelt's Committee on and criminal, the sick and well poor, the insane Fair Employment Practices, the objective of which and feeble-minded, the dependent and neglected ization of all available man- child but also in the fields of health and recreation power and to eliminate discriminatory employment The most important developments in public practices is a manifestation of governmental con- welfare administration seem to be: 1)great ex cern with this aspect of human relations. Another pansion of governmental services requiring large gency is the War Refugee Board set up by execu- numbers of administrators; (2)the introduction of tive order of the President in January 1944, and the social insurances;( 3)the development of an designed to consider the refugee problem, parti international relief organization, the UNRRA; (4) larly the needs of dislocated Jews and to find means the continuous attention to methods of improving of meeting the needs of some percentage of this services vast group of people. The War Relocation First. One of the most important developments Authority also created by executive order, pri- in the twentieth century, especially in the thirties marily for the purpose of removal of Japanese from and forties, is the rapid growth of governmental danger zones on the West Coast, has of course services particularly social services and particularly accentuated racial problems but, by the use of by the Federal Government. Not ocial workers, has attempted to reduce the inevit- pression and the new deal was it possible to prevail able antagonisms between groups and areas. pon Congress to enlarge the meaning of the How best to organize the community for inter- constitutional phrase, general welfare"for the racial cooperation is a moot question. The organi- benefit of the poor and needy wherever they might zation of groups of mixed persons for no specific be and thus to reverse the 1854 veto of President purpose other than sharing of cultural interests has Pierce in which he said he could not find any not been fruitful. Rather there seem to be two authority in the Constitution for making the methods that can better be employed:(1)the Federal government the great almoner of public creation of special committees or groups to work charity throughout the United States. on some specific problem as the settlement of the It is no news that the depression brought with Japanese in a given community or the handling of it such new Federal governmental services and negro discrimination on a given campus and (2) agencies as the FERA, WPA, NYA, Surplus com the use of already existing groups by extending modities, the Social Securities Act, and the war their interests and functions. In other words, such agencies as the OCD, Office of Community

184 SOCIAL FORCES psychology of the labor movement he showed how social workers as the healers of personal wounds must also interpret one group to another, an especially important function in relation to labor activities. Social workers are the general practitioners and family physicians working with the total person in distress and with the total community in its intergroup relationships in contrast with the analogous medical specialist who deals with a segment of a person's problem and a small part of a community. Social workers, continued Professor Perlman, are being required to study, interpret, and integrate community thinking and activities at four focal points: labor, housing, health, and veterans, and not the least of these is labor. A fifth development is organization for increase of racial and religious understanding and for dealing with the problems of groups having unfamiliar backgrounds and culture. International migration, actual and potential infiltration of refugees, labor problems, courageous fighting for their country by racial minorities are responsible for serious consideration of the problems of discrimination. President Roosevelt's Committee on Fair Employment Practices, the objective of which is to provide full utilization of all available manpower and to eliminate discriminatory employment practices is a manifestation of governmental concern with this aspect of human relations. Another agency is the War Refugee Board set up by executive order of the President in January 1944, and designed to consider the refugee problem, particularly the needs of dislocated Jews and to find means of meeting the needs of some percentage of this vast group of people. The War Relocation Authority also created by executive order, primarily for the purpose of removal of Japanese from danger zones on the West Coast, has of course accentuated racial problems but, by the use of social workers, has attempted to reduce the inevitable antagonisms between groups and areas. How best to organize the community for interracial cooperation is a moot question. The organization of groups of mixed persons for no specific purpose other than sharing of cultural interests has not been fruitful. Rather there seem to be two methods that can better be employed: (1) the creation of special committees or groups to work on some sp'ecific problem as the settlement of the Japanese in a given community or the handling of negro discrimination on a given campus and (2) the use of already existing groups by extending their interests and functions. In other words, specific objectives and not just generous goodwill must characterize organizations for increasing racial and religious understanding. PUBLIC WELFARE ADMIISTRATION We have now discussed what this writer believes are the most significant developments in the three areas of social work performance which all social workers agree are distinctly social work skills. Whether administration in the public welfare field and social action are social work skills per se or are fields in and of themselves used in many other occupations and professions is not important for this paper. The very fact that social workers believe that administrators of public welfare and those attempting to achieve social action in the areas of health and welfare should know social work from the inside out indicates that there are aspects of public welfare administration and social action as performed by the social worker which are distinctive. Public welfare administration to this writer means administration of tax supported services and agencies not just for the delinquent and criminal, the sick and well poor, the insane and feeble-minded, the dependent and neglected child, but also in the fields of health and recreation. The most important developments in public welfare administration seem to be: (1) great expansion of governmental services requiring large numbers of administrators; (2) the introduction of the social insurances; (3) the development of an international relief organization, the UNRRA; (4) the continuous attention to methods of improving services. First. One of the most important developments in the twentieth century, especially in the thirties and forties, is the rapid' growth of governmental services particularly social services and particularly by the Federal Government. Not until the depression and the New Deal was it possible to prevail upon Congress to enlarge the meaning of the constitutional phrase, "general welfare" for the benefit of the poor and needy wherever they might be and thus to reverse the 1854 veto of President Pierce in which he said he could not find any authority in the Constitution for making the Federal Government the great almoner of public charity throughout the United States. It is no news that the depression brought with it such new Federal governmental services and agencies as the FERA, WPA, NYA, Surplus commodities, the Social Securities Act, and the war such agencies as the OCD, Office of Community

PUBLIC WELFARE War Services, day nursery programs, health pro. Only a comprehensive and a compulsory govern- grams for war wives and infants, allotment and ment scheme will equalize the distribution of those allowance provisions, the War Relief Control services. There are of course, honest differences Board, educational and unemployment compensa- of opinion as to what groups should be included ion programs for veterans, etc. whether it should be compulsory or voluntary This great expansion of governmental social what proportion of expense should be met by gov services has brought to public welfare administra- ernment, by industry, and by workers, and whether tors such problems as: What social services should it should be federal or federal-state or exclusive be private and what public? Which level of gov- state administered. It does seem incontrovertible ernment should perform what services? What are that the people of the United States increasingly the functions of grants-in-aid and how should they need and want more medical protection be distributed? What should be the standards of Third. The creation of the unrra. an inter- public assistance? What services should be national relief and rehabilitation organization, is a financed by government and what by recipients? tremendously significant development in the wel What is competent performance? Typical of fare field, both because it represents a method of specific problems to which public welfare admin- international cooperation and because it utilizes istrators are now giving their attention is whether the experiences of skilled social workers. For or not all public assistance should be dispensed as example, Fred A. Hoehler, former director of the general or as categorical relief, the former being the American Public Welfare Association, is the head proposal of the Wagner-Murray-Dingell bil of the Division of Dislocated Persons. Many of Second. Particularly important in the expansion the principles of the organization are derived from of governmental services are the social insurances. the experience of welfare administrators. Other he passage of the Social Security Act in 1935, international conferences as the Food Conference with its provisions for old age and unemployment at Hot Springs, Virginia, the Monetary Conference insurance offered new security to the wage earners at bretton Woods New hampshire, the I L.o. of the country. The Wagner-Murray- Dingell bill. Conference at Philadelphia, the peace conference at liberalizes the already existing provisions and Dumbarton Oaks, are proof of international con provides for permanent and temporary disability cern with postwar economic and social problems. insurance and for hospital and health insurance They are significant for social workers because they The sections of the bill having to do with health represent international effort to prevent future insurance have brought terrific opposition from wars and to help the sufferers of World War II the medical profession. Mr. John M. Pratt of Fourth. during the war period, despite deple- the National Physicians Committee for the Exten- tion of staffs, welfare administrators have done all sion of Medical Services, in a little bulletin en- they could to maintain standards of personnel ar titled "abolishing Private Medical Pract administration. They have continued to improve Prelude to a Centralized Control of the Professions merit plans, to provide supervision, to offer nd of Industry "which has been distributed by the service training programs, to distribute reports millions writes, "Senate bill 1161 makes provision handbooks, and professional literature. In short, for free general medical, special medical, laboratory they have made a valiant effort to protect the gains and hospital benefits for 110 million people in the of the last decade. The Federal Employment United States. "He seems to have forgotten that Practices Committee composed of personnel from the bill provides for a six percent tax from em- public and private welfare agencies has made ployees and the same from employers, and he commendable but unsuccessful efforts to obtain akes no suggestion for substitute services even Federal funds for the training of social workers as though his committee professedly is for the ex- for doctors and nurses. This failure indicates that tension of medical services! social work is not yet accepted to the same extent It is unfortunate that the United States is almost as the medical and nursing professions. Generally the only large western ciently comprehensive to latures value competency in the administration of ountry which lacks a social speaking it appears that Congress and state legis- scheme suffi clude medical care and disability security. The the social services, although these bodies may not distribution of medical care and of medical costs. to what that competency invol, work profession as data included in many studies shows the unequal entirely agree with the social

PUBLIC WELFARE 185 War Services, day nursery programs, health programs for war wives and infants, allotment and allowance provisions, the War Relief Control Board, educational and unemployment compensation programs for veterans, etc. This great expansion of governmental social services has brought to public welfare administrators such problems as: What social services should be private and what public? Which level of government should perform what services? What are the functions of grants-in-aid and how should they be distributed? What should be the standards of public assistance? What services should be financed by government and what by recipients? What is competent performance? Typical of specific problems to which public welfare administrators are now giving their attention is whether or not all public assistance should be dispensed as general or as categorical relief, the former being the proposal of the Wagner-Murray-Dingell bill. Second. Particularly important in the expansion of governmental services are the social insurances. The passage of the Social Security Act in 1935, with its provisions for old age and unemployment insurance offered new security to the wage earners of the country. The Wagner-Murray-Dingell bill. liberalizes the already existing provisions and provides for permanent and temporary disability insurance and for hospital and health insurance. The sections of the bill having to do with health insurance have brought terrific opposition from the medical profession. Mr. John M. Pratt of the National Physicians Committee for the Extension of Medical Services, in a little bulletin entitled, "Abolishing Private Medical Practice or a Prelude to a Centralized Control of the Professions and of Industry" which has been distributed by the millions writes, "Senate bill 1161 makes provision forfree general medical, special medical, laboratory and hospital benefits for 110 million people in the United States." He seems to have forgotten that the bill provides for a six percent tax from employees and the same from employers, and he makes no suggestion for substitute services even though his committee professedly is for the extension of medical services! It is unfortunate that the United States is almost the only large western country which lacks a social insurance scheme sufficiently comprehensive to include medical care and disability security. The data included in many studies shows the unequal distribution of medical care and of medical costs. Only a comprehensive and a compulsory government scheme will equalize the distribution of those services. There are, of course, honest differences of opinion as to what groups should be included, whether it should be compulsory or voluntary, what proportion of expense should be met by government, by industry, and by workers, and whether it should be federal or federal-state or exclusive state administered. It does seem incontrovertible that the people of the United States increasingly need and want more medical protection. Third. The creation of the UNRRA, an international relief and rehabilitation organization, is a tremendously significant development in the welfare field, both because it represents a method of international cooperation and because it utilizes the experiences of skilled social workers. For example, Fred A. Hoehler, former director of the American Public Welfare Association, is the head of the Division of Dislocated Persons. Many of the principles of the organization are derived from the experience of welfare administrators. Other international conferences as the Food Conference at Hot Springs, Virginia, the Monetary Conference at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, the I.L.O. Conference at Philadelphia, the peace conference at Dumbarton Oaks, are proof of international concern with postwar economic and social problems. They are significant for social workers because they represent international effort to prevent future wars and to help the sufferers of World War II. Fourth. During the war period, despite depletion of staffs, welfare administrators have done all they could to maintain standards of personnel and administration. They have continued to improve merit plans, to provide supervision, to offer inservice training programs, to distribute reports, handbooks, and professional literature. In short, they have made a valiant effort to protect the gains of the last decade. The Federal Employment Practices Committee composed of personnel from public and private welfare agencies has made commendable but unsuccessful efforts to obtain Federal funds for the training of social workers as for doctors and nurses. This failure indicates that social work is not yet accepted to the same extent as the medical and nursing professions. Generally speaking it appears that Congress and state legislatures value competency in the administration of the social services, although these bodies may not entirely agree with the social work profession as to what that competency involves

SOCIAL FORCES SOCIAL ACTION come to join a Social Workers Committee for Social workers have a professional obligation Roosevelt. The theory of the committee is that first, to be experts in the skills of their profe ' Social workers have a part to play, with all other and second, to work for social change in the areas groups having the same aims, in drafting where they have special knowledge. They have President to carry further a program which makes like all other citizens the further obligation to be it possible to have full employment, sound eco- aware of the economic and social forces that make nomic cooperation with allied nations, protection for world chaos and to do through political activities. When they attempt franchisement, actually to realize, that is,the to effect community thought and action in those democracy for which we are fighting ts organization where they are There will be strong differences of opinion be- experts it through special interest and tween social workers as to whether or not they as abject they are fulfiling their second social workers should form a political action com obligation whether as private individuals the The achievement of social action may be the should support political parties, or whether as primary, or the secondary, or only an incidental experts they should join specific committees having function of a social worker. It is his essential specific purposes. Whatever may be the conclu function, if, for example, he is the executive se sion of any given social worker, the fact remains tary of a State Welfare Council; it is his secondary that social workers must increasingly assume re- function as head of a community chest or adminis- sponsibility for helping to achieve greater social trator of a welfare bureau; it is his incidental func- security. They cannot remain quiet and in- tion as a case worker. Such organizations as the fferent concerning methods of eliminating what National Federation of Settlements, the Family Sir william Beveridge calls, want, disease, ig- Welfare Society of America, the National Child norance, squalor, idleness. If we mean what we Labor Committee, the American Association for say when we say we wish to do away with the Social Security, the National Consumers League, causes of distress which create a need for our and the social action divisions of the national profession we must be advocates, proponents, re- church bodies give all or part of their time to formers. Were Mrs. Florence Kelly alive today achieving social action or social reform. she would welcome this urge to political action and Obviously since social action is designed to effect perhaps feel less impulsi on to berate and deride change in social conditions, opposition which may the profession for its complacent pride in expand be very influential and powerful is generated. ing numbers and in widely attended conferences The extent to which an agency will arouse the These then are the two most important develop- antagonisms of real estate interests for slum clear- ments among social workers in the area of social ance or low cost housing, or of commercial recrea- action:(1)They are recognizing an increasing tion interests for the elimination of indecency and obligation to participate in efforts for improve- vice, or of the medical profession for health insur- me ents in such fields as housing, employment ance, or of employers for higher wages, depends health, the social insurances, public assistance upon agency security, agency function, agency (2)They are forming and joining political action philosophy, and the relative strength in the com- groups. munity of support and opposi The agency which exists for the purpose of achieving social change knows what it has to contend with when it Social workers have need for new faith and new is created. But the agency which has social action hope. A depression, a war, and the fear of another as a secondary or incidental function must carefully weigh the values of one or another course of action. depression leave them no time for idleness, lethargy, Social action is achieved by such processes as insulation. The very nature of their activities aggregation and dissemination of data, mobilizing provides the incentive for consideration of motive of public opinion, lobbying, political action. Only and cause. It is a welcome trend that social work cently have social workers openly and avowedly ers are more and more willing to participate in the aligned themselves with political action groups. struggle for a better world. Faith that political While this paper is being written an invitation has and economic security can be achieved in this world

186 SOCIAL FORCES SOCIAL ACTION Social workers have a professional obligation first, to be experts in the skills of their profession and second, to work for social change in the areas where they have special knowledge. They have like all other citizens the further obligation to be aware of the economic and social forces that make for world chaos and to do something about them through political activities. When they attempt to effect community thought and action in those aspects of social disorganization where they are experts and do it through special interest and subject groups, they are fulfilling their second obligation. The achievement of social action may be the primary, or the secondary, or only an incidental function of a social worker. It is his essential function, if, for example, he is the executive secretary of a State Welfare Council; it is his secondary function as head of a community chest or administrator of a welfare bureau; it is his incidental function as a case worker. Such organizations as the National Federation of Settlements, the Family Welfare Society of America, the National Child Labor Committee, the American Association for Social Security, the National Consumers League, and the social action divisions of the national church bodies give all or part of their time to achieving social action or social reform. Obviously since social action is designed to effect change if social conditions, opposition which may be very influential and powerful is generated. The extent to which an agency will arouse the antagonisms of real estate interests for slum clearance or low cost housing, or of commercial recreation interests for the elimination of indecency and vice, or of the medical profession for health insurance, or of employers for higher wages, depends upon agency security, agency function, agency philosophy, and the relative strength in the community of support and opposition. The agency which exists for the purpose of achieving social change knows what it has to contend with when it is created. But the agency which has social action as a secondary or incidental function must carefully weigh the values of one or another course of action. Social action is achieved by such processes as aggregation and dissemination of data, mobilizing of public opinion, lobbying, political action. Only recently have social workers openly and avowedly aligned themselves with political action groups. While this paper is being written an invitation has come to join a Social Workers Committee for Roosevelt. The theory of the committee is that "Social workers have a part to play, with all other groups having the same aims, in drafting the President to carry further a program which makes it possible to have full employment, sound economic cooperation with allied nations, protection against exploitation, race discrimination, disfranchisement,-actually to realize, that is, the democracy for which we are fighting." There will be strong differences of opinion between social workers as to whether or not they as social workers should form a political action committee, or whether as private individuals they should support political parties, or whether as experts they should join specific committees having specific purposes. Whatever may be the conclusion of any given social worker, the fact remains that social workers must increasingly assume responsibility for helping to achieve greater social security. They cannot remain quiet and indifferent concerning methods of eliminating what Sir William Beveridge calls, want, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness. If we mean what we say when we say we wish to do away with the causes of distress which create a need for our profession we must be advocates, proponents, reformers. Were Mrs. Florence Kelly alive today she would welcome this urge to political action and perhaps feel less impulsion to berate and deride the profession for its complacent pride in expanding numbers and in widely attended conferences! These then are the two most important developments among social workers in the area of social action: (1) They are recognizing an increasing obligation to participate in efforts for improvements in such fields as housing, employment, health, the social insurances, public assistance. (2) They are forming and joining political action groups. CONCLUSION Social workers have need for new faith and new hope. A depression, a war, and the fear of another depression leave them no time for idleness, lethargy, insulation. The very nature of their activities provides the incentive for consideration of motive and cause. It is a welcome trend that social workers are more and more willing to participate in the struggle for a better world. Faith that political and economic security can be achieved in this world

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