The Era of Global Navigation Thla Formosa:A New Name For centuries,Taiwan had little contact or involvement with the countries surrounding it and was in total isolation from the Western world.It appeared in Chinese records from the Sui dynas- ty on,but the mention was not one of territorial claim.Taiwan was seen as one of many islands in the Taiwan Strait and a place for potential exploration.Mainlanders fleeing the takeover of China by the Mongols (Yuan dynasty,1263-1368)could have retreated there;but that is difficult to prove by historical records.Otherwise 油曳解 it had been a home for fisherman,traders,pirates,and aborigines (the original Taiwanese).Its isolation,however,came to an abrupt end in the period of Global Navigation by the European powers in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. During that time,the maritime European powers were pushing their sea-going vessels to their limits.They pursued a course of exploration,colonization,trade linkage and religious proselytiza- tion of regions of the world hitherto unvisited.The first to enter Asian waters were the Portuguese.In 1497 Vasco da Gama led an expedition around the Cape of Storms at the southern tip of Africa, and renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.With this name he expressed European expectations of the opening sea routes to
2 ISLAND IN THE STREAM I.The Era of Global Navigation 3 India.On this same expedition,da Gama also reached and landed farthest place the government officials of the Ming pursued these at present day Macau.By 1511,the Portuguese were in control of pirates was the Penghu Archipelago (the Pescadores)in the trade routes between Lisbon,Goa (India)and Malacca(Malaysia). Taiwan Strait.Because of the pirates and isolationist policies,the With Malacca as a trading and missionary base,the Portuguese Ming severely restricted travel and trade abroad. expanded their influence into southern and eastern Asia.Their ultimate goal was to establish trade with China and Japan.They An Aboriginal Nation？ accomplished this with a route linking Macau (officially colonized Long before the presence of the international pirate groups, in 1557)and Hirato in Japan.In the mid-1500s as one of the numerous aboriginal tribes were already present on the island.The Portuguese ships was en route to Tanegashima,an island of aborigines were of two types,the mountain people and the plains southern Japan,it discovered Taiwan and gave it the name "Thla people.In the mountains were the Atayal,Saisiat,Tsou,Bunun, Formosa"("beautiful island").Formosa would be the name the Rukai,Paiwan,Ami,Kavalan,Peinan,Thao,Taroko,and Tao, island would maintain in the Western world until the mid now considered the twelve major tribes of Taiwan.On the plains twentieth century.In this text we will use the names"Taiwan"and were numerous Pingpu groups but these would eventually become "Formosa"interchangeably. extinct through intermarriage and assimilation with the Chinese. In looking for the origins of the aborigines,many theories A Pirate Base abound.Some consider that the aborigines are of Malay- While certainly a beautiful island,Formosa was also a pirate base. Polynesian stock and had migrated from the south when lower Pirates from Japan as well as China had found the island a ocean levels allowed land connections between Indonesia,the relatively unprotected refuge as they plied their trade.The Philippines and Taiwan.Other theories have linked them with the Japanese pirates had their primary bases in Kyushu and Shikoku Japanese living on the Ryukyu Islands,and others try to trace them and formed armed trading groups with Chinese and Korean to what is now called Fujian Province in mainland China.HLA members.They used Portuguese as a lingua franca in the slave testing has demonstrated that some aborigines are related to the trade. Polynesian peoples in New Zealand;but it is unproved that all are These pirate groups constantly tormented the Ming dynasty so related.The fact that the various tribes operated independently (1368-1644)and were given the name“Wokou'”(偻寇，which is from each other gives credence to the position that their origins translated as "Japanese raiders or bandits."Formosa provided may be of more than one source. them with an excellent place for retreat,fresh water and supplies While each group had a unique culture and language,the after they had attacked Ming vessels and coastal cities.The aborigines were first mistakenly viewed as one nation and called
4 ISLAND IN THE STREAM 1.The Era of Global Navigation 5 the "Takasago"("high mountain people")by the Japanese.It was an appropriate name since the central mountain range of Taiwan The Spanish Flag has 200 peaks taller than 3,000 meters. Ferdinand Magellan,a Portuguese explorer in the service of Spain, Inl593,the Japanese king Toyotomi Hideyoshi(豐臣秀吉) left in 1519 in a bold and adventurous attempt to sail around the dispatched Harada Magoshitiro(原田孫七郎)as an ambassador to world.He reached and died in the Philippines in 1521;but one of this"High Mountain Nation."Hideyoshi sought to invade China his five ships would complete this unprecedented adventure by and had two routes available;one through Korea and the other 1523.Encouraged by this voyage,the Spanish returned and by through Formosa.Finding that no one tribe in Formosa could 1565 conquered the Philippines.Spanish interest in Formosa soon representatively speak for all,he chose the route of Korea.It was developed;they saw it as a midway point between their a bad choice and got Japan involved in an eventual quagmire on Philippines settlements and Japan.By occupying Taiwan,they that peninsula.When he died in 1598,his campaign was could provide security for the Bashi Channel,share or snatch the abandoned.If he had gone through Formosa,perhaps Hideyoshi Formosan trade from the Dutch and more easily dominate trade would have fared no better.Regardless,this was the first routes to Japan.In 1626,despite setbacks in Japan,Spanish fleets experience where Formosa was viewed or treated as an from Manila landed on the northeastern coast of Formosa and independent country by an outsider. named the place Santiago.They also entered Keelung and The Name Taiwan established Fort San Salvador.Two years later they occupied Tamsui on the northwestern coast and established Fort Santo The origins of the name of Taiwan are disputed.Some interpret it Domingo.Spanish influence was limited to the northern portion of as a corruption of the name of the locale (Taoyuan)where the the island.But after seventeen years,they withdrew.Their reasons earliest settlements were made.Others see it as the aborigines' were many.In addition to being attacked by the Dutch and by the name for aliens.When Chinese,Japanese or other aliens came to aborigines,many of their soldiers also died of illness.But their Formosa,the aborigines people would talk of them as "Taian,or main reason for withdrawal was that the samurai government in Taiyan"both words which meant"aliens."As often happens in the Japan continued to refuse the Spanish the right to trade and misunderstanding of language,Dutch traders who later heard proselytize.As the Japanese continued to persecute Christians these words,associated them with the island and gave Formosa the there was little hope that this position would be reversed. name Taiwan from these utterances.That same name also appears Defending Formosa lost its value,and the Spanish returned to the in the Ming court's agreement to the occupation of Taiwan by the Philippines. Dutch
ISLAND IN THE STREAM 1.The Era of Global Navigation The Dutch quickly established two forts in the Tainan area. The Dutch Flag One located at Anping was first called Fort Orange and then While the Spanish were in the Philippines,the Dutch had come to Zeelandia.The other,located nearby,was called Provintia.Both Indonesia in the early 1600s and founded Batavia (Jakarta)in were capable of defense.Zeelandia housed their trading functions 1619.The Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie(VOC)or United while Provintia housed the administrative,sleeping and Dutch East India Company,formed in 1602,managed their warehouse functions.From these solid bases,the Dutch gradually colonial businesses and trade.In search of a mid-station for their expanded their influence on the island. Asian trade,the Dutch traders had already been to the Penghu Both aborigines and Chinese dwelt near the area where the Archipelago (the Pescadores),located in the Taiwan Strait,in Dutch settled but they offered little or no opposition.However as 1603.They had also made repeated unsuccessful attempts to the Dutch began to confiscate more land and levy taxes, dislodge the Portuguese from Macau. resentment and resistance slowly built up.In the meantime,the When the Dutch decided to settle in Penghu,their actions drew Dutch used missionaries to try to convert the aborigines and using a quick response from the Ming regime in China.The Ming Roman characters translated the Bible into their language.For government had maintained its restrictions on travel abroad and those who refused to become Christians,the Dutch resorted to saw this as a threat.They attacked the Dutch on Penghu in 1624. military force to drive them from the area.The Dutch also levied After eight months both sides signed a truce agreement.This a 10 percent customs duty on all trading in Formosa whether agreement had three main points.The Dutch would abandon. Penghu;the Ming would not oppose the Dutch occupation of import or export.This 10 percent duty was opposed by Japanese Formosa;and trade would be maintained between the Ming and traders who had been used to trading with the Chinese on the Dutch.Since the Ming government did not claim sovereignty Formosa.In 1625,a Japanese sea captain named Hamada over Formosa,this was an easy arrangement for them to make. Yahiyoue(浜田弥兵術)challenged the Dutch right to levy taxes. Following the treaty,the Dutch developed settlements at Anping He refused to pay these taxes and declared himself exempt.This near Tainan in southwest Taiwan.Soon,however,they were declaration would sour the trade between the Dutch commercial conscious of the Spanish presence on the north of the island.They firm in Hirato,Japan and the Japanese samurai government.In also experienced Japanese attempts to establish firm trading bases 1627,Japanese traders brought aborigines leaders to be presented in Formosa.As a result of this,the Dutch replaced the governor in to the Japanese Shogun,but hopes of an alliance were Batavia and reassigned him as governor of Formosa.From there unsuccessful.Finally,trade would temporarily break off when in he could consistently look after Dutch trade activities and interests 1628,Hamada led some aborigines in a failed attempt to with both China and Japan. assassinate the Dutch governor.An international conflict loomed
I.The Era of Global Navigation 9 8 ISLAND IN THE STREAM between the Dutch and Japanese but it dissipated when in 1635 the cabbages,garden peas,tomatoes,mangos,capsicum,rice,and Tokugawa shogun began a policy of isolationism (sakoku).They especially sugarcane.They also brought in the Indian buffalo. forbade trade and then outlawed shipbuilding of ocean going Revolts vessels and other ships from 1633 to 1636.In 1639 they formally entered into a self-imposed isolation policy that would last until During the Dutch rule of the island,there were revolts from the 1853 when the "black ships"of Admiral Perry would force their aborigines and Chinese,but the Dutch were able to employ a way into Tokyo Bay.With trade down to a trickle and with ship- policy of divide and conquer.The aborigines rose up in the Madou building hampered,even the Japanese pirate groups lost their Incident(麻豆事件)inI635 and the Xiaolong Incident(蕭壟事 influence in the Taiwan Strait. )in 1636.As these revolts were crushed,the Dutch increased their hold on the island. Dutch Colonial Profit The Chinese whose immigration had been openly encouraged Using the labor of the aborigines and the Chinese immigrants,the also became dissatisfied..n1652,Guo Huai-yi(郭懷一)a Dutch were quick to gain profit from Formosa.Trade increased. subordinate of the pirate Zheng Zhi-long gathered the people The Dutch could get spices,amber,kapok and opium from together to resist the Dutch.Unfortunately Guo's brother leaked Southeast Asia through Batavia.They also got silver from Japan information of the planned revolt to the Dutch and the Dutch with and silk,pottery,Chinese medicine,and gold from China.All this 2000 Christian aborigines met and defeated them. was exchanged for sugar,venison,and deer hides from Formosa. Lacking appropriate weapons,Guo and 4,000 ofhis men were Formosa was proving valuable to them. routed and hunted down.But this and the other revolts indicated a The pirates who surrounded Formosa still existed but the growing tendency of the various groups on the island to seek their Dutch made a treaty with Zheng Zhi-long(鄭芝龍)，a pirate own freedom.They did not look to be united with either China or leader,to guarantee the safety of their vessels at sea.The Dutch Japan but simply to be left alone to make a living.In the meantime, could now spend time developing agriculture in Formosa. the practice of the Dutch to play one side against the other to Farmland belonging to the Dutch East India Company was maintain power,would become a practice among each incoming established and immigration encouraged.Immigrants had to pay regime. anywhere from 5 to 10 percent of the profit they made in renting Koxinga and the Ming Flight land from the company.The Dutch successfully improved the spice crop and introduced several new crops to the island such as In 1628,the Ming dynasty found itself with far greater matters of
10 ISLAND IN THE STREAM I.The Era of Global Navigation 2 concern than what was happening on Formosa,which had been eliminating ports of refuge and supplies for pirates or Ming left to the Dutch.The Manchus in the northeast were expanding loyalists.Soon,there were few places on the mainland coast where their influence and threatening the very existence of the Ming. Koxinga and his pirates could take refuge except for Kinmen Seeking both military and capital support,the Ming regime called (Quemoy)and the Amoy Islands.It was there that Koxinga met upon the pirate leader Zheng Zhi-long for help.Zhi-long had been Ho-Bin a translator who had been working for the Dutch based in Hirato,Japan and had taken a Japanese wife,Tagawa. East India Company.Ho-Bin told him of the advantages of the Zhi-long,who operated both as an opportunistic trader and pirate, island of Formosa was also a mercenary leader with a strong army of followers.The Formosa,the Ming Invasion Manchus began their conquest of China in earnest in 1646.They sought to conquer by using both force and enticement.The high Armed with maps of Formosa supplied by Ho-Bin,Koxinga set officials of the Ming court who had fled south were offered similar out with a fleet of 400 ships and 25,000 men to take the island. positions in the Qing court if they ceased resistance.Zhi-long who Penghu (the Pescadores)was their first stop.They quickly posed a military threat was also offered the opportunity to switch occupied Penghu and made plans to invade Formosa where the sides for a court appointment.Zhi-long's family suspiciously Chinese immigrants who had just suffered defeat in the rebellion opposed this exchange,but Zhi-long decided to go for the bait and of Guo Huai-i were sympathetic to a savior. received a comfortable place in Beijing.When Zhi-long later Upon landing Koxinga first seized food supplies for his troops. failed to bring his forces along with him,the Manchus placed him Then he attacked Fort Provintia because it had fewer defenses. under house arrest.Zhi-long's wife Tagawa then committed Finally he laid siege to Fort Zeelandia.The Dutch were put in a suicide. predicament.They were outnumbered and supplies began to run Koxinga(成功)，Zhi-long'sson(b.1624)by Tagawa was away low.They cried to the governor in Batavia for assistance and to the pursuing studies when news of this reached him.He abandoned his aborigines,but the distances were too great for sufficient help from studies and having inherited the pirate enterprise from his father he Batavia and the aborigines could not muster a strong enough force became a scourge to the coastal cities on the east.Koxinga pledged to break the siege.Eventually after a siege of nine months,they himself to try to re-establish the Ming rule in China,despite the surrendered in 1662.The Dutch had ruled Formosa for 38 years. fact that by not joining his father Zhi-long,he would hasten Zhi- After driving out the Dutch,Zheng Cheng-gong or Koxinga as long's execution in 1661. he is called in the West began to plan administrative districts. In 1660,the Manchus ordered all inhabitants of China's east Though the Dutch had made some divisions of territory,this is the coastal region to move inland 1.728 kilometers,in effect first time that a Chinese system of administration was applied to
12 ISLAND IN THE STREAM I.The Era of Global Navigation 13 the island.Koxinga deliberately chose names to reflect his Koxinga's Death relationship to the Ming regime. Formosa was called Dongdu(柬都)，that is the eastern capital Less than a year after the taking of Formosa,Koxinga died in of the Ming Regime.Zeelandia was destroyed and the area re- 1662.He had not realized his goals but a shrine was erected to him named Anping.The surrounding region(now Tainan)was called by the Chinese immigrants;he was deified and many myths about Cheng Tianfu(承天府)，which means a government connecting his life soon developed and spread throughout East Asia.In 1664, God to his people.To the north,the land was called Tianxing feeling pressure from the Manchu people and the Dutch who still 興縣，flourishing)County,.and to the south,Wannian(蒿年縣， traded with China,Zheng Jing(鄭經)，the eldest son of Koxinga long life)County.A defense bureau named“Anfu”(安撫司， who had been left in charge of Amoy,led seven thousand soldiers placating)was established in the Pescadore Islands.Koxinga had and their families to Formosa.This marked the Zheng forces used names that reflected the Ming regime's extension. complete abandonment of the mainland. An immediate problem that Koxinga had faced was Zheng Jing then proceeded to change and improve the insufficient food.The population of Formosa during the Dutch administrative districts set up by his father.He changed"Dongdu" rule was one hundred thousand people;Koxinga had brought an to“Dongning”(束寧，peaceful east);and the two counties became additional thirty thousand including the soldiers and their families. "Tianxing Prefecture'”and“Wannian Prefecture..”He further This rapid increase of population strained the food supply.To established two more“An-f”groups on Formosa.“Zheng resolve this,Koxinga confiscated all of the land previously Tianfu"was divided into four streets and twenty-four units that possessed by the Dutch East India Company and transferred it to were called the“Street Unit System.”(坊里制)With this street unit his regime.These lands were divided among his trusted staff and system,Zheng Jing established a census register,which would relatives;and in addition the development of farmland in southern become the basis of the "Bao-jia System,”(保甲制度)a system Formosa was aggressively pursued.Koxinga unwisely invaded the used for keeping local security.This system is still in use today. land that belonged to the aborigines and destroyed any oppo- Government affairs were given to Chen Yong-hua(陳永華)， rtunities of peaceful co-existence with them.With the develop- the father in law of Zheng Jing's elder son.Yong-hua established ment of the land divided among his staff and relatives,the private many policies for farmland development,education and finance, land system that has existed into the present was introduced and but he also developed a severe tax system that would make the Koxinga influence expanded from the sea to the land. people feel they were no better off than under the Dutch
14 ISLAND IN THE STREAM I.The Era of Global Navigation 15 When the Ming government made its treaty with the Dutch in Summary Thought 1624,was it stating the Pescadores are a part of China,but Taiwan By 1662,the greater part of Taiwan was still in the hands of the is not?Therefore the Dutch can have it? aborigines.Ming loyalists had driven out the Dutch and occupied How did the Taiwanese aborigines view the Dutch and the south.These loyalists who had chosen Taiwan hoped to use subsequent presence of other peoples on Taiwan?Did they see Taiwan as a base to retake the mainland.The Dutch still traded in each as a tribe occupying the land it could control? the area and considered the possibility of retaking the island.The When the Japanese contested the Dutch rights to levy taxes on Japanese had become isolationist and retreated to their country. Taiwan trade,did they consider Taiwan as open territory and not The Spanish had decided to operate from the Philippines.Pirate subject to Dutch rule or taxes? groups still existed and their chameleon like ability to shift back The Spanish,Dutch and other Europeans often claimed lands and forth between pirates and traders made them tolerated.The in the name of their king or queen.Did they feel that sovereignty aborigines begrudgingly shared the island with all as long as the was simply a matter of force? aliens did not encroach too much more on their territory.While no When the pirate Koxinga took Taiwan from the Dutch did he one had complete sovereignty over the island,the aborigines feel he was breaking the previous Ming treaty?Was he simply controlled the greater portion. seeking a port in a storm and a base for regaining the mainland from the Manchus? Questions There are many methods of determining sovereignty,de facto Additional Readings possession,de jure agreements,historic tradition,a shared mythic Anderson,Malcom.Frontiers,Polity Press,1996,Cambridge. destiny,common ethnicity,self-determination etc.In the twentieth How states are formed and the development of the concepts of and twenty-first centuries which determinations are the most boundaries and sovereignty. reliable? Campbell,Rev.William.Formosa under the Dutch,SMC Publishing Did the Japanese ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi view Formosa as Inc.,1992,Tapiei.Written in 1903,it compiles many Dutch a separate kingdom in his invasion of China in 1593 or was he diaries and accounts of their rule. simply seeking to cover his flanks from attack by a third party? Clough,Ralph N.Island China,Harvard University Press,1978, Harvard. Pirate groups have little or loose national loyalty.Did the 劉其律，《台灣原住民文化藝術》，台北，雄狮美衙，1997。 pirates of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries consider 潘英，《台灣平捕族史》，台北，南天著局，1996。 Formosa their territory or open to those who claimed it?
16 ISLAND IN THE STREAM 曹永和，《台灣早期盈史研究》，台北，聯經出版社，1979。 I 戴天昭，《台灣國際政治史》，台北，前衛出版社，1996。 彭明数、黄昭堂合著，蔡秋雄泽，《台灣在圈際法上的地位》，台 The Qing Era 北，玉山社，1995。 中村孝志著，吴密察、翁住音合編，《荷蘭時代台灣史研究》，台 北，稻螂出版社，1997。 村上直次郎，《新港文害Sinkan Manuscripts》,台北，台北帝图大 Trouble Within 學理農學部，1933；台北，捷幼出版社復刻，1995。 速帕爾著，施博爾、黄典權粱，（郭憶一事件〉（收缘於《台灣凰 The Manchus established the Qing dynasty (1644-1911)and 物》26卷3期，台北)。 sought ways to eliminate the influence of Zheng Jing and any 座千惠，〈郭懷一月夜起義〉（收錄於《新巍念》1998年7月號， remnants of the Ming regime.As was mentioned,all people living 台北)。 in the coastal area including Guangdong,Fujian,Zhejiang, 永横洋子，〈從荷蘭史料來看17世纪的台灣贸易〉（收錄於中央研 Jiangsu,and Shandong had to move inland 1.728 km or more. 究院中山人文社科所主辦「第七屈中图海洋發展史圈際研討 Fishing and trading were forbidden.Naturally as these 會」論文集，1997，台北)。 prohibitions became more severe,smuggling flourished to fill the 《巴连雛亞城日记》，台北，台湾省文欺委覓會，1970。 void. 《熱蘭遮城日》第1局，台南，台南市政府，2000。 Formosa became a smugglers'paradise as well as a place of refuge for anyone wanting to flee the Qing regime.The population increased to one hundred and fifty thousand;but so did the development of farmland,so food was not a problem. While food was not an issue for the people,taxes were.In order to keep their finances 'high,the Zheng regime on Formosa taxed numerous items,and the suffering of the people which was difficult under the Dutch,became worse.Complaints increased. In addition to the problem of taxes,another problem developed for the Zheng regime.Zheng Jing,who had taken over from his father,soon got into disputes with his uncle,the younger brother of Koxinga,over the campaign leadership.In the resulting civil 17
18 ISLAND IN THE STREAM II.The Qing Era 19 war,Zheng Jing gained victory but in 1681 when he died,another fan's suggestion,Ke-Shuang caved in to the Qing regime and the dispute over succession arose between Chen Yong-hua who Zheng powers sent an envoy to Penghu to ask for terms of wanted to focus on managing Formosa and Feng Xi--fan(馮錫範) surrender. and Liu Guo-xuan(劉國軒)who wished to continue the struggle In September,a representative of Shi Lang came to Formosa with the Qing regime.Chen Yong-hua supported his son-in-law to accept the seal of the regime and the property lists and to ask the Ke-zang(克减)，the elder son of Zeng Jing,while Feng and Liu Formosans to adopt the pigtail hairstyle.Shi Lang followed with a supported Ke-Shuang(克块)，the younger son.After a series of large contingent from Penghu shortly afterwards and occupied the battles,those supporting Ke-Shuang and continuing the war with island without bloodshed.The Zheng regime,which had ruled the Qing won out. since 1662,had come to an end. The Qing regime took advantage of these disputes to sow seeds of discontent and distrust among those on Formosa.By Qing Debate l679,they had set up a building called“Xiu-lai”(修來第，cordial After the Qing regime claimed victory over the Zheng forces,they relations)to welcome back anyone belonging to the Zheng camp. debated on what to do with Formosa.Two different proposals Those deserting could receive rewards with the same position and were put to the imperial court.The majority of advisors suggested pay that they had had previously.This slowly eroded the strength that they abandon the troublesome island;but Shi Lang advocated of the Ming loyalists. occupying Formosa. The reasons for abandoning Formosa were simple.It was a The Empire Strikes small island isolated from China and continued to be a den of After 1681,the Qing began direct attacks on the Zheng forces.Shi pirates,deserters,rebels,and criminals fleeing justice.There was Lang (was made naval superintendent and the chief general no plus side to occupying it.Shi Lang took an opposing view. in the Formosan campaign.Shi Lang had been in the Zheng camp Formosa had abundant resources that could be utilized;and it and had gone over to the other side after a violent falling out with could provide a buffer zone or shield to southeast China.Besides, Koxinga.The Manchus were primarily mounted land fighters if Formosa was left unattended,the pirates,the Dutch or others and not familiar with naval fighting.Shi Lang proved to be a could easily return without China being aware of it until it was too valuable asset. late.For these reasons in 1684,the Qing emperor accepted Shi On July 8,1683,Shi Lang led a fleet of three hundred ships Lang's suggestions to occupy Formosa.So,once again Formosa and twenty thousand soldiers to invade Penghu.Within one week, became involved in the affairs of the mainland and ruled by an he occupied the islands,causing panic on Formosa.At Feng Xi- outside power