上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 美苏爆发冷战的原因 Causes of the Cold War between the USA and USSR 林光杨（化学与化工学院，5101109038） 摘要：从第二次世界大战结束到苏联解体，美苏两国竞争成为全世界的国家的国 际关系中心。冷战对世界各国乃至整个国际结构的演变产生了重大深远影响。许多 历史学家冷战研究过多种因素为什么是美苏之间爆发冷战，而本文探讨二战后冷战 爆发的原因。 关键词：美苏冷战根本原 Abstract From the end of the second world war until the end of Soviet Union,the United States and Soviet Union competed in becoming the center of international relationships among nations.The cold war have significant impact in changing the international structure of the world.Lots of historian have studied the reason of the outbreak of cold war and analyzed the causes of each countries,here we discuss the causes of the outbreak just after the second world war. Key United States of America and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,Cold War,Root Cause In 1945,just after the Second World War,the alliance between the USA,Britain and the USSR ended.An fierce rivalry between communist and non-communist nations led to the Cold War.It's called the Cold War because it never led to armed or "hot"conflict, except in Asia.There were deep-rooted ideological,economic and political differences between the United States and the Soviet Union before the World War and were intensified as a result of their mutual suspicions just after the war.1 I.Underlying Causes (i)Ideological The United States and the Soviet Union represent two opposing systems of government. In the United States,the government is elected by free elections.The people can form political parties to voice their political opinions.They also possess the right of assembly, 1"Origins of the Cold War."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc..3 December 2012. 1
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 1 美苏爆发冷战的原因 Causes of the Cold War between the USA and USSR 林光杨（化学与化工学院，5101109038） 摘要：从第二次世界大战结束到苏联解体，美苏两国竞争成为全世界的国家的国 际关系中心。冷战对世界各国乃至整个国际结构的演变产生了重大深远影响。许多 历史学家冷战研究过多种因素为什么是美苏之间爆发冷战，而本文探讨二战后冷战 爆发的原因。 关键词：美苏 冷战 根本原 Abstract : From the end of the second world war until the end of Soviet Union, the United States and Soviet Union competed in becoming the center of international relationships among nations. The cold war have significant impact in changing the international structure of the world. Lots of historian have studied the reason of the outbreak of cold war and analyzed the causes of each countries, here we discuss the causes of the outbreak just after the second world war. Key : United States of America and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Cold War, Root Cause In 1945, just after the Second World War, the alliance between the USA, Britain and the USSR ended. An fierce rivalry between communist and non-communist nations led to the Cold War. It's called the Cold War because it never led to armed or "hot" conflict, except in Asia. There were deep-rooted ideological, economic and political differences between the United States and the Soviet Union before the World War and were intensified as a result of their mutual suspicions just after the war.1 I. Underlying Causes (i) Ideological The United States and the Soviet Union represent two opposing systems of government. In the United States, the government is elected by free elections. The people can form political parties to voice their political opinions. They also possess the right of assembly, 1 “Origins of the Cold War.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 3 December 2012
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 of speech and of the press.They possess democracy and capitalism.In the Soviet Union, the government is formed by the Communist Party.The people do not have the right to form their own political parties.They do not enjoy the right of assembly,of speech and of the press.They possess communism and socialism.Since these two systems of government are diametrically opposed to one another,there can be little compromise between the United States and the Soviet Union.The United States believed in a "domino theory,"2 which meant that once one country fell to communism,they would all fall.Their answer for this was containment,3 including Marshall Plan (economically) and arms race(militarily). (ii)Economic The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world.The Soviet Union wanted to shield off her own sphere from international commerce.Russia feared that trade with the West would involve the risk of Russia being opened to western influences which would have eroded the strength of the totalitarian regime.These differences led to much ill feeling between the United States and the Soviet Union.The United States became alarmed with the growing of communism in Eastern Europe and set up the Marshall Plan in order to counteract the spread of communism.4 The Marshall Plan was an economic support program funded by the United States.They gave relief money to the war torn democratic countries in order to rebuild their economy.They did not give money to the Soviet Union and any of its satellites states.The Unites States' motivation for doing this was to provide themselves with trading partners and to economically exclude the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union also formed an exclusive economic federation between all the states in communist countries called Cominform5 (iii)Power rivalry and Military After the Second World War,with the decline of Europe,power was largely shared between the Soviet Union and the United States.As one wanted 'to dominate the other, conflicts were inevitable. The idea of a weapon that could produce global annihilation was born during the Second World War;with this information in the limelight,the United States and the 2 President Dwight D.Eisenhower."Domino Theory."Press Conference.7 April 1954. 3 Pieper,Moritz A.(2012)."Containment and the Cold War:Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions".StudentPulse.com.3 December 2012. 4"The Marshall Plan."George C,Marshall Foundation.2009.Web.3 December 2012. 5 P.M.H.Bell,The World Since 1945,London,Arnold,2001,pp.89 6"Manhattan Project."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc..5 December 2012. 2
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 2 of speech and of the press. They possess democracy and capitalism. In the Soviet Union, the government is formed by the Communist Party. The people do not have the right to form their own political parties. They do not enjoy the right of assembly, of speech and of the press. They possess communism and socialism. Since these two systems of government are diametrically opposed to one another, there can be little compromise between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States believed in a "domino theory," 2 which meant that once one country fell to communism, they would all fall. Their answer for this was containment,3 including Marshall Plan (economically) and arms race (militarily). (ii) Economic The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. The Soviet Union wanted to shield off her own sphere from international commerce. Russia feared that trade with the West would involve the risk of Russia being opened to western influences which would have eroded the strength of the totalitarian regime. These differences led to much ill feeling between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States became alarmed with the growing of communism in Eastern Europe and set up the Marshall Plan in order to counteract the spread of communism.4 The Marshall Plan was an economic support program funded by the United States. They gave relief money to the war torn democratic countries in order to rebuild their economy. They did not give money to the Soviet Union and any of its satellites states. The Unites States’ motivation for doing this was to provide themselves with trading partners and to economically exclude the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union also formed an exclusive economic federation between all the states in communist countries called Cominform5 (iii) Power rivalry and Military After the Second World War, with the decline of Europe, power was largely shared between the Soviet Union and the United States. As one wanted 'to dominate the other, conflicts were inevitable. The idea of a weapon that could produce global annihilation was born during the Second World War 6 ; with this information in the limelight, the United States and the 2 President Dwight D. Eisenhower. “Domino Theory.” Press Conference. 7 April 1954. 3 Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). "Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions". StudentPulse.com. 3 December 2012. 4 “The Marshall Plan.” George C, Marshall Foundation. 2009. Web. 3 December 2012. 5 P. M. H. Bell, The World Since 1945, London, Arnold, 2001, pp. 89 6 “Manhattan Project.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 5 December 2012
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 Soviet Union entered into the nuclear arms race,developing the first atomic bombs.In order to perfect these weapons of mass destruction,both countries needed to test their products to look for flaws in the general blue prints of the weapons.7 Seeing the success with the atomic bomb,the United States started developing a more destructive bomb, the hydrogen bomb,8 believed to be 1000 times stronger than the atomic bomb.The United States even had their own test site on Nevada test site.Meanwhile,Soviet Union feared of the great destruction power owned by their rival,researched and produced nuclear arms on their own.3 The so-called nuclear arms race in between the United States and the Soviet Union was a competition for supremacy in nuclear weapons during the Cold War. (iv)Personal Hatred The Soviet Union could not forget that in 1918 Britain and the USA had tried to destroy the Russian Revolution.10 Also,Britain and the USA could not forget that Stalin had signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Germany in 1939 while Soviet had promised to become allies.11 Don't forget to mention that President Harry Truman had a personal dislike with Josef Stalin.12 (v)Aims Stalin wanted huge reparations from Germany to Soviet,and a 'buffer'of friendly states to protect the USSR from being invaded again.However,Britain and the USA wanted to protect democracy,and help Germany to recover.They were worried that large areas of eastern Europe were falling under Soviet control.This meant that the 'Big Three'found it difficult to get agreement at the Conferences (Tehran,Yalta,Potsdam)13 which outlined the principles of the post-war peace.And it proved impossible to get agreement on the details at the conference meeting where it eventually broke down altogether. 7"Nuclear Testing 1950s."123HelpMe.com.05 Dec 2012. 8"Hydrogen Bomb."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc..5 December 2012. 9"Soviet atomic bomb project."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc..5 Dec. 2012. 10"Russian Revolution:Civil War."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc..5 Dec. 2012. 11魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社，2008，第238页 12"Causes of the Cold War in 1945."HistoryLearningSite.co.uk.5 December 2012. 13"World War ll Conferences."Historyteacher.net.5 December 2012. 3
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 3 Soviet Union entered into the nuclear arms race, developing the first atomic bombs. In order to perfect these weapons of mass destruction, both countries needed to test their products to look for flaws in the general blue prints of the weapons.7 Seeing the success with the atomic bomb, the United States started developing a more destructive bomb, the hydrogen bomb,8 believed to be 1000 times stronger than the atomic bomb. The United States even had their own test site on Nevada test site. Meanwhile, Soviet Union feared of the great destruction power owned by their rival, researched and produced nuclear arms on their own.9 The so-called nuclear arms race in between the United States and the Soviet Union was a competition for supremacy in nuclear weapons during the Cold War. (iv) Personal Hatred The Soviet Union could not forget that in 1918 Britain and the USA had tried to destroy the Russian Revolution.10 Also, Britain and the USA could not forget that Stalin had signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Germany in 1939 while Soviet had promised to become allies.11 Don’t forget to mention that President Harry Truman had a personal dislike with Josef Stalin.12 (v) Aims Stalin wanted huge reparations from Germany to Soviet, and a ‘buffer’ of friendly states to protect the USSR from being invaded again. However, Britain and the USA wanted to protect democracy, and help Germany to recover. They were worried that large areas of eastern Europe were falling under Soviet control. This meant that the 'Big Three' found it difficult to get agreement at the Conferences (Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam)13 which outlined the principles of the post-war peace. And it proved impossible to get agreement on the details at the conference meeting where it eventually broke down altogether. 7 “Nuclear Testing 1950s.” 123HelpMe.com. 05 Dec 2012. 8 “Hydrogen Bomb.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 5 December 2012. 9 “Soviet atomic bomb project.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 5 Dec. 2012. 10 “Russian Revolution: Civil War.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 5 Dec. 2012. 11魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社， 2008，第 238 页 12 “Causes of the Cold War in 1945.” HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 5 December 2012. 13 “World War II Conferences.” Historyteacher.net. 5 December 2012
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 Il.Immediate Causes Leading to the Cold War Incipient conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States began at the peace- time conferences.Their conflict was intensified after President Truman declared the Truman Doctrine14 and launched the Marshall Plan in 1947. (i)Extension of Russian influence in Europe: Even before the end of the war,the Soviet Union had gradually extended her influence in Europe.By the fall of 1944,the Red Army had liberated and controlled a large part of eastern Europe.15 By 1945,at the Yalta Conference,the Soviet Union obtained the Curzon Line as her new boundary line with Poland and also the control of the eastern zone of Germany.16 As the war was drawing to a close in May 1945,the Soviet Union quickly consolidated her control of eastern Europe.The Red Army began by influencing the post-war elections.They intimidated the voters and changed the voting lists as they desired. Although the non-communists could still gain some votes,most of the votes went to the communists.Thus the coalition governments formed immediately after the war were largely dominated by the communists.Two of the key ministries-Defense and Military (Police)-were always under communist control.17 Stalin was not satisfied with communist control of eastern Europe.In the meantime,he encouraged the communists to take an active part in the immediate post-war elections in western Europe,but to no avail. (ii)The reactions of the United States: Despite the increasing Russian influence in eastern and central Europe,many politicians in the United States were optimistic about the chances of co-operation with the Soviet Union after the war and did not advocate strong resistance against Soviet expansion. But from May 1945 onwards,the situation was changed.The U.S.government favored a policy of strong resistance against Russia. The first reason was that President Roosevelt died on April 12,1945.He was succeeded by Harry S.Truman.President Roosevelt was an optimistic man.He seemed to have believed that although eastern Europe had fallen under the influence of Russia,she would keep her promise(made at Yalta)by setting up freely-elected parliamentary governments in the area.So Roosevelt did not advocate strong resistance against 14 President Harry S.Truman."Truman Doctrine."Joint Session of Congress.12 March 1947. 15 Wettig,Gerhard.Stalin and the Cold War in Europe,Rowman Littlefield.2008.pp.35-39 16"Curzone Line."PolishGreatness.com.5 Dec.2012. 17"Eastern Bloc:Formation of Eastern Bloc."Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation, Inc..5 December 2012
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 4 II. Immediate Causes Leading to the Cold War Incipient conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States began at the peace- time conferences. Their conflict was intensified after President Truman declared the Truman Doctrine 14 and launched the Marshall Plan in 1947. (i) Extension of Russian influence in Europe: Even before the end of the war, the Soviet Union had gradually extended her influence in Europe. By the fall of 1944, the Red Army had liberated and controlled a large part of eastern Europe.15 By 1945, at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union obtained the Curzon Line as her new boundary line with Poland and also the control of the eastern zone of Germany.16 As the war was drawing to a close in May 1945, the Soviet Union quickly consolidated her control of eastern Europe. The Red Army began by influencing the post-war elections. They intimidated the voters and changed the voting lists as they desired. Although the non-communists could still gain some votes, most of the votes went to the communists. Thus the coalition governments formed immediately after the war were largely dominated by the communists. Two of the key ministries - Defense and Military (Police) - were always under communist control.17 Stalin was not satisfied with communist control of eastern Europe. In the meantime, he encouraged the communists to take an active part in the immediate post-war elections in western Europe, but to no avail. (ii) The reactions of the United States: Despite the increasing Russian influence in eastern and central Europe, many politicians in the United States were optimistic about the chances of co-operation with the Soviet Union after the war and did not advocate strong resistance against Soviet expansion. But from May 1945 onwards, the situation was changed. The U.S. government favored a policy of strong resistance against Russia. The first reason was that President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. He was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. President Roosevelt was an optimistic man. He seemed to have believed that although eastern Europe had fallen under the influence of Russia, she would keep her promise (made at Yalta) by setting up freely-elected parliamentary governments in the area. So Roosevelt did not advocate strong resistance against 14 President Harry S. Truman. “Truman Doctrine.” Joint Session of Congress. 12 March 1947. 15 Wettig, Gerhard. Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield. 2008. pp. 35-39 16 “Curzone Line.” PolishGreatness.com. 5 Dec. 2012. 17 “Eastern Bloc: Formation of Eastern Bloc.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. 5 December 2012
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 Russian expansion.18 The new President,Truman,was a complete contrast to Roosevelt. He did not believe the communists.He thought that the communists would not set up democratic governments in eastern Europe.He also believed that after the Soviet Union had established her control in eastern Europe,she would continue to extend her influence into western Europe.Thus President Truman favored a policy of strong resistance against Russian expansion. The second reason was that just before the Potsdam Conference was to take place,the United States had successfully exploded her atomic bomb.President Truman thought that since the United States alone possessed the atomic bomb,she could adopt a stiff attitude towards Russian expansion in Europe.19 The third reason was that President Truman was personally disgusted at the non-co- operative attitude of the Russians at the Potsdam Conference.Russia was determined to exact heavy reparations from Germany. (iii)Poor relations between the United States and the Soviet Union: The deteriorating relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were reflected in two minor incidents in the year.Land-Lease was abruptly terminated by the United States and the Russian request for American economic aid for the purposes of post-war reconstruction was ignored by the government of the United States.2021 The poor relations between the East and West were also reflected in a speech by Churchill,known as the Iron Curtain speech.In March 1946,Churchill made a speech at Fulton,Missouri in which he said,"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic,an iron curtain has descended across the continent....Behind that line lie all the capitals of the central and eastern Europe.Warsaw,Berlin,Prague,Vienna,Budapest,Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia,all are subject in one form or another not only to Soviet influence but also to a very high and increasing control from Moscow."The Fulton speech increased the American suspicion of Soviet aggressive designs in Europe.22 In my opinion,the effects of this cold war must also be noted as importance.These causes got heated up resulted in the Berlin crisis in 1948,the formation of military alliances such as NATO and Warsaw Pact,the cold war in East Asia where a real war 18"The Yalta Conference."Office of the Historian,Bureau of Public Affairs,United States Department of State.6 December 2012. 19"The Potsdam Conference."Office of the Historian,Bureau of Public Affairs,United States Department of State.6 December 2012. 20 Weiss,Stuart L.The President's Man:Leo Crowley and Franklin Roosevelt in Peace and War.Carbondale, Illinois:Southern Illinois University Press,1996.p.220 21"The Lend-Lease Act."About.com.6 December 2012. 22魏啸飞魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社，2008，第255-256页 5
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 5 Russian expansion.18 The new President, Truman, was a complete contrast to Roosevelt. He did not believe the communists. He thought that the communists would not set up democratic governments in eastern Europe. He also believed that after the Soviet Union had established her control in eastern Europe, she would continue to extend her influence into western Europe. Thus President Truman favored a policy of strong resistance against Russian expansion. The second reason was that just before the Potsdam Conference was to take place, the United States had successfully exploded her atomic bomb. President Truman thought that since the United States alone possessed the atomic bomb, she could adopt a stiff attitude towards Russian expansion in Europe.19 The third reason was that President Truman was personally disgusted at the non-co- operative attitude of the Russians at the Potsdam Conference. Russia was determined to exact heavy reparations from Germany. (iii) Poor relations between the United States and the Soviet Union: The deteriorating relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were reflected in two minor incidents in the year. Land-Lease was abruptly terminated by the United States and the Russian request for American economic aid for the purposes of post-war reconstruction was ignored by the government of the United States.2021 The poor relations between the East and West were also reflected in a speech by Churchill, known as the Iron Curtain speech. In March 1946, Churchill made a speech at Fulton, Missouri in which he said, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent .... Behind that line lie all the capitals of the central and eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all are subject in one form or another not only to Soviet influence but also to a very high and increasing control from Moscow." The Fulton speech increased the American suspicion of Soviet aggressive designs in Europe.22 In my opinion, the effects of this cold war must also be noted as importance. These causes got heated up resulted in the Berlin crisis in 1948, the formation of military alliances such as NATO and Warsaw Pact, the cold war in East Asia where a real war 18 “The Yalta Conference.” Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. 6 December 2012. 19 “The Potsdam Conference.” Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. 6 December 2012. 20 Weiss, Stuart L. The President's Man: Leo Crowley and Franklin Roosevelt in Peace and War. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996. p. 220 21 “The Lend-Lease Act.” About.com. 6 December 2012. 22魏啸飞魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社， 2008，第 255-256 页
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 broke out in China(CPC and KMT)and Korea(North and South),the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962,the space wars,arms wars including ballistic missiles and nuclear warheads. The Afghan War by Soviet in which the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1980,which led to the United States and its allies boycotting the 1980 Olympic games in Moscow.In retaliation,the Soviet Union and its allies boycotted the 1984 Olympic games in Los Angeles,USA.23 The US financed and armed the Afghan guerrillas to fight against the Soviet troops.The Afghan War was a major factor in bankrupting the Soviet Union.24 Eventually,the flaws of communism would prove to be greater than those of democracy, and socialism came crashing down with the Berlin Wall.The Warsaw Pact were disintegrated,the Baltic states and some former Soviet Republics achieved independence.Communism collapsed worldwide.Once again,the world had survived a critical moment in history. Reference Wettig,Gerhard.Stalin and the Cold War in Europe,Rowman Littlefield.2008.pp.35-39 P.M.H.Bell,The World Since 1945,London,Arnold,2001,pp.89 Crockatt Richard.The Fifty Years War:The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1941-1991.First to Fourth Chapter. Wikipedia:The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation,Inc. Office of the Historian,Bureau of Public Affairs,United States of America Department of State. 魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社，2008，第234-308页 23"Olympic Games Boycotts and Political Events."Topend Sports Network.7 December 2012 24 A Panoramic History of American Civilization for Colleges,Peking University Press,2008,p.305 6
上海交通大学通识核心课程“历史视野下的美国文化”结业论文 6 broke out in China(CPC and KMT) and Korea (North and South), the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the space wars, arms wars including ballistic missiles and nuclear warheads. The Afghan War by Soviet in which the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1980, which led to the United States and its allies boycotting the 1980 Olympic games in Moscow. In retaliation, the Soviet Union and its allies boycotted the 1984 Olympic games in Los Angeles, USA. 23 The US financed and armed the Afghan guerrillas to fight against the Soviet troops. The Afghan War was a major factor in bankrupting the Soviet Union.24 Eventually, the flaws of communism would prove to be greater than those of democracy, and socialism came crashing down with the Berlin Wall. The Warsaw Pact were disintegrated, the Baltic states and some former Soviet Republics achieved independence. Communism collapsed worldwide. Once again, the world had survived a critical moment in history. Reference Wettig, Gerhard. Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield. 2008. pp. 35-39 P. M. H. Bell, The World Since 1945, London, Arnold, 2001, pp. 89 Crockatt Richard. The Fifty Years War: The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1941-1991. First to Fourth Chapter. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States of America Department of State. 魏啸飞，《美国文明史》，北京大学出版社， 2008，第 234-308 页 23 “Olympic Games Boycotts and Political Events.” Topend Sports Network. 7 December 2012. 24魏啸飞, A Panoramic History of American Civilization for Colleges, Peking University Press, 2008, p. 305