延安大学：《翻译理论与实践》课程教学资源（授课教案，汉译英）Introductory Remarks about the Course.pdf_大学文库

1 Introductory Introductory Introductory Introductory Remarks about the Course Ⅰ. The main objectives objectives objectives objectives of the course This course is to teach students basic theories, specific principles and concrete techniques and skills, and to train students mainly to the ability of putting Chinese into English through practice. Emphasis will be on practice. So students should learn basic theories, specific principles and concrete techniques and skills. Ⅱ.Required Required Required Required textbooks textbooks textbooks textbooks and reference reference reference reference books: 1. Cheng Hongwei, Li Yadan A New Course book on Chinese - English Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2003 2. Zhuhui, A Course book in Chinese - English Translation. Chongqin: Chongqin University Press, 2004 3. Cheng Zhaowei etal. A Concise Course book On Translation. National Defense Industry Press 4. Lu Ruichang, etal. Textbook for Translating Chinese into English. Xi’an : Shaan’xi People’s press, 1983. Ш. Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements • Students are expected to attend all class sessions. • If you are absent, a note (a written explanation) must be presented to explain the reason for the absence. When you miss classes, remember it is your responsibility to find out what you missed. • If you are absent three times, please come to see me immediately. • Assignments are due on the day announced in class. All assignments must be submitted ON TIME. Late assignments will not be accepted. So prepare your assignments in advance. • All class assignments will be written on the paper arranged by our department. IV. Grading Grading Grading Grading You will be evaluated on your attendance, participation in class, class assignments, and translation ability. Attendance, participation, class assignments, translation …20% Final Exam…80% The passing grade for this course is 70. That means those who score below 70 fail. Grades are not negotiable under any circumstances!

Chapter 1 An introduction to Chinese -English Translation Translation in China 1. Three peaks of translation in history 1 1 The Translation of Buddhist" nudist]佛教的 Classics: The First Peak Buddhism bpc originated in India and began to penetrate to china toward the middle of the first century, leaving a permanent influence on Chinas religion, philosophy ocial life Several important figures are worth mentioning here 11.1 Zhi Qian(支谦)( Zhi Qian made great contribution to translation theory)(佛经翻译的阶段、草创时期) It is generally acknowledged that Zhi Qian in the Three Kingdoms periods wrote the first essay on translation norms. In over thirty years(222-254)he translated about thirty volumes of Buddhist scriptures圣经 in a literal manner. In the essay" Preface to Fa uJing"(《法句经》序) he put forward his norms that the translator of Buddhist classics should"follow the original ntention of the author without any embroidery(粉飾)”(因循本旨,不加文饰). And it might be in his period of time that there appeared a discussion on literal translation and free translation, a core issue in the development of translation theory LL2D■oAn(道安)(佛经翻译的第二阶段、发展时期) In the fifth century(the Easter Jin Dynasty ) the earliest state translation school yichang(if th)was founded and the translation of Buddhist classics was carried out on a large scale. Dao An (314-385)was appointed its director =E L, who advocated strict literal translation and made egested that a translator should"tr without any addition and deduction?”(案本而传,不令有损言游字) Around374, Dao an compiled A Comprehensive Catalogue of the Sutras[su: tra]经典(《综理众经目录》),a bibliography of all translations done before, the first of its kind in the history of Chinese Buddhism 113 Kumarajiva(鸠摩罗什) India by birth, the famous monk Kumarajiva(350-409)was invited to Changan in 401,a center bustling(a fi*X TE ) with Buddhist activities. His task was to retranslate the most influential scriptures and produce definitive editions with authoritative interpretations. It is he who firstly suggested that translators should sign their names in translated works. Kumarajiva's translations generally speaking, were more faithful to the original due to his years of assiduous [a'sidjues]5 勉的刻苦的 effort and st 11.4 Xuan Zang(玄奘)(佛经翻译的第三阶段、全盛时期) ( Journey to the West《西游记》; Dream ofthe Red Mansions《红楼梦》; Tree Kingdoms

4 Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 1 An Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction to Chinese-English Chinese-English Chinese-English Chinese-English Translation Translation Translation Translation Ⅰ. Translation Translation Translation Translation in China 1. Three peaks of translation translation translation translation in history history history history 1.1 The Translation Translation Translation Translation of Buddhist Buddhist Buddhist Buddhist [ 'budist 'budist 'budist 'budist ] 佛教的 Classics: Classics: Classics: Classics: The First Peak Buddhism 佛教 originated in India and began to penetrate to China toward the middle of the first century, leaving a permanent influence on China’s religion, philosophy and social life. Several important figures are worth mentioning here: 1.1.1 Zhi Qian (支谦) (Zhi Qian made great contribution to translation theory)（佛经翻译的第一阶段、草创时期） It is generally acknowledged that Zhi Qian in the Three Kingdoms periods wrote the first essay on translation norms. In over thirty years (222-254) he translated about thirty volumes of Buddhist scriptures 圣经 in a literal manner. In the essay “Preface to Fa Ju Jing” 《( 法句经》序)， he put forward his norms that the translator of Buddhist classics should “follow the original intention of the author without any embroidery（粉飾）”（因循本旨，不加文饰）. And it might be in his period of time that there appeared a discussion on literal translation and free translation, a core issue in the development of translation theory. 1.1.2 Dao An (道安) （佛经翻译的第二阶段、发展时期） In the fifth century (the Easter Jin Dynasty), the earliest state translation school yichang (译场) was founded and the translation of Buddhist classics was carried out on a large scale. Dao An (314-385) was appointed its director 主管 , who advocated strict literal translation and made translation a profession. He suggested that a translator should “translate according to the original without any addition and deduction” (案本而传，不令有损言游字 ). Around 374, Dao An compiled A Comprehensive Catalogue of the Sutras ['su:trə] 经典(《综理众经目录》 )， a bibliography of all translations done before, the first of its kind in the history of Chinese Buddhism. 1.1.3 Kumarajiva Kumarajiva Kumarajiva Kumarajiva (鸠摩罗什) India by birth, the famous monk Kumarajiva (350-409) was invited to Chang’an in 401, a center bustling(热闹繁忙)with Buddhist activities. His task was to retranslate the most influential scriptures and produce definitive editions with authoritative interpretations. It is he who firstly suggested that translators should sign their names in translated works. Kumarajiva’s translations, generally speaking, were more faithful to the original due to his years of assiduous [ə'sidjuəs] 勤勉的,刻苦的 effort and study. 1.1.4 Xuan Zang (玄奘) （佛经翻译的第三阶段、全盛时期）（Journey to the West《西游记》; A Dream of the Red Mansions 《红楼梦》;Three Kingdoms

《三国演义》; Outlays of the Marsh《水浒》;Omam犯法后躲藏起来的人,Mms沼泽、湿地) In the Tang Dynasty, Xuan Zang(600-664), the most eminent figure of the first peak translation history, arrived in India after countless trials and brought back to the capital Changan 657 collections of sutras[sutr]佛经经典 in the original. In the 19 years preceding his death,he translated 75 collections(1, 335volumes)of them, which is more than half the total translations of Buddhist scriptures done in the dynasty. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-making[ i pok meikin]划时代的 criteria that translation“ must be faithful and intelligible易理解的 to the populace' copulas]平民,大眾”(既须求真,又须喻俗) 12 The translation of books on science and technology: The second peak(科技翻译:中国的士大夫和传教士联手将欧洲的宗教、哲学、科技和文学等“西学”介绍到中国来。) The second peak, lasting for a span of 200 years, began in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties around the 17th century. With the arrival of Jesuit['dzezjuit missionaries from Italy Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and Poland, China came into contact Tkontaekt] with the Western world gradually. Many missionaries had their works or translations published in China, and many concerned science and technology ranging from astronomy stream天文学, mathematics, physics and metallurgy me'taeled3i]治金學 to anatomy [a' nstemi]剖析,解剖學,骨骸, biology生物学 and cartography[ka: togrefi]地图制作,制图法制图 Two important figures are worth mentioning here 1.2.1 Xu Guangqi(徐光启 xu guang qi) Xu Guangqi( 1562-1633), a distinguished scientist and a senior official of the late Ming Dynasty, played a remarkable role in introducing Western science into China when it was labeled as an unorthodox term by most traditional scholars. during his charge of the Hanlin Academy (4a F E)in Beijing, the top academic institution in China, Xu cooperated with the Italian Jesuit d3 zjut耶稣会信徒 Matteo Ricci((利玛窦) in translating the 13 volumes of euclid' s Iju kid Elements of Geometry[ d3i'5mitri(《几何原本》), though only6 volumes( the part of plane geometry)were actually translated. Many of the terms in the translation are still in use today, such as point, line, straight line, curve Hsa, parallel lines, angle, right angle, acute angle i%fi,obtuse b,tju s angle钝角, triangle, quadrilateral [ kwodri'laetaral]四边形etc. 122Lzho(李之藻zao) Living in the same period as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao(1569-1630) was also an eminent scientist as well as famous translator. Under the guidance of Matteo Ricci, Li acquired plenty of Western knowledge and later became a Catholic fkaeealik]天主教徒In1613 Li Zhizao and matteo ricci translated Tong Wen Suan Zhi(《同文算指》), which illustrated how to perform written arithmetic

5 《三国演义》;Outlaws of the Marsh《水浒》; Outlaw 犯法后躲藏起来的人，Marsh 沼泽、湿地） In the Tang Dynasty, Xuan Zang (600-664), the most eminent figure of the first peak in translation history, arrived in India after countless trials and brought back to the capital Chang’an 657 collections of sutras ['su:trə] 佛经,经典 in the original. In the 19 years preceding his death, he translated 75 collections (1,335volumes) of them, which is more than half the total translations of Buddihist scriptures done in the dynasty. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-making ['i:pɔk'meikiŋ] 划时代的 criteria that translation “must be faithful and intelligible 易理解的 to the populace [ 'pɔpjuləs ] 平民,大眾 ” (既须求真，又须喻俗). 1.2 The translation translation translation translation of books on science science science science and technology: technology: technology: technology: The second peak（科技翻译：中国的士大夫和传教士联手将欧洲的宗教、哲学、科技和文学等“西学”介绍到中国来。） The second peak, lasting for a span of 200 years, began in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties around the 17th century. With the arrival of Jesuit [ 'dʒezjuit ] missionaries from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and Poland, China came into contact ['kɔntækt] with the Western world gradually. Many missionaries had their works or translations published in China, and many concerned science and technology ranging from astronomy [ə'strɔnəmi] 天文学, mathematics, physics and metallurgy [ me'tælədʒi ] 冶金學 to anatomy [ ə'nætəmi ] 剖析,解剖學,骨骸, biology 生物学 and cartography [kɑ:'tɔgrəfi] 地图制作,制图法,制图. Two important figures are worth mentioning here: 1.2.1 Xu Guangqi(徐光启 xú guāng qǐ) Xu Guangqi(1562-1633), a distinguished scientist and a senior official of the late Ming Dynasty, played a remarkable role in introducing Western science into China when it was labeled as an unorthodox term by most traditional scholars. During his charge of the Hanlin Academy(翰林院 ) in Beijing, the top academic institution in China, Xu cooperated with the Italian Jesuit ['dʒezjuit] 耶稣会信徒 Matteo Ricci(利玛窦) in translating the 13 volumes of Euclid’s ['ju:klid] Elements of Geometry [dʒi'ɔmitri] (《几何原本》)，though only 6 volumes(the part of plane geometry) were actually translated. Many of the terms in the translation are still in use today, such as point, line, straight line, curve 曲线, parallel lines, angle, right angle, acute angle 锐角, obtuse [əb'tju:s] angle 钝角, triangle, quadrilateral [.kwɔdri'lætərəl] 四边形, etc. 1.2.2 Li Zhizao( Zhizao( Zhizao( Zhizao(李之藻 zǎo) Living in the same period as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao(1569-1630) was also an eminent scientist as well as famous translator. Under the guidance of Matteo Ricci, Li acquired plenty of Western knowledge and later became a Catholic ['kæθəlik] 天主教徒. In 1613 Li Zhizao and Matteo Ricci translated Tong Wen Suan Zhi (《同文算指》)，which illustrated how to perform written arithmetic

operations书面算术运算, for example, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, extraction 13 The Transl_ tion of western cl_ asics: The Third Peak(鸦片战争后至“五四”前的西方政治思想和文学翻译) The Opium [oupjom] War(1840-1842)and the singing of the first unequal Treaty of Nanjing ushered['Na]引导展示 in the third peak of translation activity in China's history, lasting from the mid 1gth century to the eve auy of the may 4th Movement, with emphasis on Western works of ocial sciences, military sciences and literature. Some representative figures include 131 Lin Zexu(林则徐 Respectfully regarded as a national hero against British opium trade and "the first Chinese who opened his eyes to look at the outside world", Lin Zexu(1785-1850), a government official was also an eminent organizer of translation activity during this period. He established a translation centre in Guangzhou to render some foreign works on history and geography into Chinese as well as gather information from the Western press 132LSh_nn(李善兰) 1.33 Lin Shu(林纾shu)(陈宏薇P8) Lin Shu(1852-1924), a traditional Chinese scholor, has been regarded as the pioneer of literary translation in China due to his large quantity of translations of Western novels Interestingly, Lin Shu never did hid job independently, instead, he translated with the assistance of interpreters because he himself did not know any foreign languages. He penned elegant classical Chinese versions of a wide range of foreign works such as Uncle Tom3Cabm(《黑奴吁录》《汤姆叔叔的小屋》); David Copperfield(《块肉余生述》《大卫.科波菲尔》) Oliver Twist(《贼史》《雾都孤儿》 134Y_nFu(严复) Living in the late Qing society constantly threatened by colonial expansion and profoundly shocked by the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki(《马关条约》) of April 1895 with Japan,Yan Fu(1853-1921), became an active reformist and devoted to weaving via r'vaie, ' vi: l eE his translation Western studies in the broad space of the Chinese language. The 1898 translation of Thomas Henry Huxley's Evolution and Ethics(《天演论》) established his reputation throughout the country, in which he rendered“ natural selection and survival of the fittest" into物竟天择,适 E1, a widely quoted saying coming down to this day. In the preface to the translated Evolution and ethics, Yan Fu set down the triple三个一组 translation criteria,, namely, faithfulness(信) expressiveness((达) and elegance(雅)”, with which he opened a new chapter in the translation history of China

6 operations书面算术运算, for example, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, extraction of a root, etc. 1.3The Translation Translation Translation Translation of Western Western Western Western Classics: Classics: Classics: Classics: The Third Peak（鸦片战争后至“五四”前的西方政治思想和文学翻译） The Opium ['əupjəm] War (1840-1842) and the singing of the first unequal Treaty of Nanjing ushered['ʌʃə] 引导,展示 in the third peak of translation activity in China’s history, lasting from the mid 19th century to the eve 前夕 of the may 4th Movement, with emphasis on Western works of social sciences, military sciences and literature. Some representative figures include: 1.3.1 Lin Zexu (林则徐) Respectfully regarded as a national hero against British opium trade and “the first Chinese who opened his eyes to look at the outside world”, Lin Zexu (1785-1850), a government official, was also an eminent organizer of translation activity during this period. He established a translation centre in Guangzhou to render some foreign works on history and geography into Chinese as well as gather information from the Western press. 1.3.2 Li Shanlan Shanlan Shanlan Shanlan（李善兰） 1.3.3 Lin Shu（林纾 shū）(陈宏薇 P.8) Lin Shu (1852-1924), a traditional Chinese scholor, has been regarded as the pioneer of literary translation in China due to his large quantity of translations of Western novels. Interestingly, Lin Shu never did hid job independently, instead, he translated with the assistance of interpreters because he himself did not know any foreign languages. He penned elegant classical Chinese versions of a wide range of foreign works such as Uncle Tom’s Cabin (《黑奴吁录》《汤姆叔叔的小屋》)；David Copperfield (《块肉余生述》《大卫.科波菲尔》);Oliver Twist（《贼史》《雾都孤儿》) 1.3.4 Yan Fu（严复） Living in the late Qing society constantly threatened by colonial expansion and profoundly shocked by the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki (《马关条约》) of April 1895 with Japan, Yan Fu (1853-1921), became an active reformist and devoted to weaving via ['vaiə, 'vi:ə] 经由 his translation Western studies in the broad space of the Chinese language. The 1898 translation of Thomas Henry Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics (《天演论》) established his reputation throughout the country, in which he rendered “natural selection and survival of the fittest” into 物竟天择，适者生存， a widely quoted saying coming down to this day. In the preface to the translated Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu set down the triple 三个一组 translation criteria, namely, “faithfulness(信), expressiveness(达) and elegance(雅)”，with which he opened a new chapter in the translation history of China

Yan Fu: Evolution and Ethics and otheressays by TH. Huxley(《天演论》); n inquiry Into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth/ Nations by a. Smithe(《原富》) 2.2 Translation in Contemporary China Translation activity has taken on a new look ever since the May 4th Movement, the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. For the sake of a concise discussion, we may divide the contemporary era into two period 2.2.1 Translation in China between 1919-1949 Literary Translation was equally noteworthy during this period, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature and the development of Chinese literature Classical Chinese in translation was gradually replaced by a more simplified and easily- understood vernacular [va'naekjula]本地话,方言 Chinese baihe(白话), Hence a linguistic progress. In terms of the quality and quantity of literary translation, both improved greatly due to the unremitting efforts of many eminent translators including Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai Maodun and Lin Yutang, who not only devoted to translation practice but also advanced their own theory about such heated topics as translation criteria, literal or free translation, etc 2.2.2 Translation in Present-day China Translation in China has stepped into a new era since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. National and regional organizations for translators were established and a large quantity of scientific and technical works was translated into Chinese to meet the demands of national social and economic construction. Meanwhile, the quality and quantity of translations from Chinese into foreign languages acquired With the conclusion of the so-called"Great Cultural Revolution"and Chinas adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up, there were renewed EWf efforts in the field of translation studies and practice. Never before has so much been translated by and for so many, be it of a literary, cultural, scientific, economic or technological nature In the last few decades. a number of scholars in China introduced various translation principles in view of new discoveries in such branches as semiotics, social-linguistics intercultural communication, etc. Accordingly, translation theories have witnessed dramatic changes in many areas like notions of equivalence, faithfulness, contexts, cultural interaction and conflicts Looking back on the history of translation in China, we find that, on one hand, the long history of translation is wor ng pride in; on the other hand, it is hard to find a systematic translation theory to guide translation practice although there do exist some prescriptive explaI ons on now ranslate. By comparing the situation with Western studies in this field, we

7 Yan Fu：Evolution and Ethics and other essays by T.H. Huxley (《天演论》)；An Inquiry Into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nations by A. Smith(《原富》). 2.2 Translation Translation Translation Translation in Contemporary Contemporary Contemporary Contemporary China Translation activity has taken on a new look ever since the May 4th Movement, the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. For the sake of a concise discussion, we may divide the contemporary era into two periods. 2.2.1 Translation Translation Translation Translation in China between between between between 1919-1949 1919-1949 1919-1949 1919-1949 Literary Translation was equally noteworthy during this period, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature and the development of Chinese literature. Classical Chinese in translation was gradually replaced by a more simplified and easily-understood vernacular [və'nækjulə] 本地话 , 方言 Chinese baihua,( 白话 ) ， Hence a linguistic progress. In terms of the quality and quantity of literary translation, both improved greatly due to the unremitting efforts of many eminent translators including Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai, Maodun and Lin Yutang, who not only devoted to translation practice but also advanced their own theory about such heated topics as translation criteria, literal or free translation, etc. 2.2.2 Translation Translation Translation Translation in Present-day Present-day Present-day Present-day China Translation in China has stepped into a new era since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. National and regional organizations for translators were established and a large quantity of scientific and technical works was translated into Chinese to meet the demands of national social and economic construction. Meanwhile, the quality and quantity of translations from Chinese into foreign languages acquired encouraging achievements. With the conclusion of the so-called “Great Cultural Revolution” and China’s adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up, there were renewed 更新 efforts in the field of translation studies and practice. Never before has so much been translated by and for so many, be it of a literary, cultural, scientific, economic or technological nature. In the last few decades, a number of scholars in China introduced various translation principles in view of new discoveries in such branches as semiotics, social-linguistics, intercultural communication, etc. Accordingly, translation theories have witnessed dramatic changes in many areas like notions of equivalence, faithfulness, contexts, cultural interaction and conflicts. Looking back on the history of translation in China, we find that, on one hand, the long history of translation is worth taking pride in; on the other hand, it is hard to find a systematic translation theory to guide translation practice although there do exist some prescriptive explanations on how to translate. By comparing the situation with Western studies in this field, we

have to admit that China still has a long way to go in its development of translation theory and practice. With its booming兴旺的,繁荣的 economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community, China now is facing a new challenge in translation studies IL. The nature and classification of translation( see students'book) Ill. The units of translation(see students'book IV. The standard of translation(see students'booko 1. One is set up by Yan Fu(ki)on the basis of" faithfulness, expre essiveness and elegance"(faithfulness to be faithful to the content of the original expressiveness: to be as expressive as the original; elegance: to be elegant if a translator uses words or sentence patterns before Han Dynasty.)(信、达、雅).(信: 意义不倍(背)本文,忠实于原文:达:尽译文语言所能事以求原义明显,不拘泥于原文形式,信、达二者统一;雅:脱离原文而片面追求译文本身的古雅。他认为只有译文本身采用“汉以前字法句法”——实际上即所谓上等的文言文,才算登大雅之堂。)(加上课本p8中间的内容评论) 2. The other is put forward by Lu Xun(鲁迅) on the basis of“ rather being faithful in thought than smooth in language'(宁信而不顺) 3. The new China witnesses two important scholars on translation. One is Fu Lei and the other is Qian Zhongshu. The former suggests " achieve the'spiritof the original or expression resemblance”(神似).(译文同原文如果能在形式上和精神上同时一致起来,或称能达到“形似”和“神似”,这是翻译的高标准。Mr Qian Zhongshu puts forward the ideas of" transfiguration or conversion "which aimed at" perfection(化境).(所谓“化境”‘就是原作向译文的“投胎转世” 文字形式虽然换了,而原文投胎的思想、感情、风格、神韵都原原本本的化到了译文的境界里了,丝毫不留下翻译的痕迹,让读者读译作就完全像在读原作一样化境是比传神更高的翻译标准。) They two follow the principle of faithful 4. In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, there appeared another translator, the me An(in 3). He suggested"preaching according to the original without any deduction or addition”(案本而传,不令有损言游字:按照原文的本意) In the history of western translation theories, there appeared a lot of translation theorists. Here we only mention some representative opinions on translation criteria Alexander Raster Tytler proposed the famous three principles in his essay on the principles of translation, in which he thought thatthe translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and the manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; the translation should

8 have to admit that China still has a long way to go in its development of translation theory and practice. With its booming 兴旺的,繁荣的 economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community, China now is facing a new challenge in translation studies. II. The nature and classification classification classification classification of translation translation translation translation (see students students students students’ book) III. The units of translation translation translation translation (see students students students students’ book) IV. The standard standard standard standard of translation translation translation translation (see students students students students’ book) 1. One is set up by Yan Fu (严复) on the basis of “faithfulness faithfulness faithfulness faithfulness , expressiveness expressiveness expressiveness expressiveness and elegance elegance elegance elegance” (faithfulness: to be faithful to the content of the original; expressiveness: to be as expressive as the original; elegance: to be elegant if a translator uses words or sentence patterns before Han Dynasty .)(信、达、雅). (信：意义不倍(背)本文，忠实于原文；达：尽译文语言所能事以求原义明显，不拘泥于原文形式，信、达二者统一；雅：脱离原文而片面追求译文本身的古雅。他认为只有译文本身采用“汉以前字法句法”——实际上即所谓上等的文言文，才算登大雅之堂。) (加上课本 p.8 中间的内容评论) 2. The other is put forward by Lu Xun (鲁迅) on the basis of “rather being faithful faithful faithful faithful in thought thought thought thought than smooth in language language language language”(宁信而不顺). 3. The new China witnesses two important scholars on translation. One is Fu Lei and the other is Qian Zhongshu. The former suggests “achieve achieve achieve achieve the ‘spirit’ of the original original original original or expression expression expression expression resemblance resemblance resemblance resemblance”（神似）. (译文同原文如果能在形式上和精神上同时一致起来，或称能达到“形似” 和“神似”，这是翻译的高标准。)Mr. Qian Zhongshu puts forward the ideas of “transfiguration transfiguration transfiguration transfiguration or conversion conversion conversion conversion” which aimed at “perfection perfection perfection perfection”(化境).（所谓“化境”‘就是原作向译文的“投胎转世” ，文字形式虽然换了，而原文投胎的思想、感情、风格、神韵都原原本本的化到了译文的境界里了，丝毫不留下翻译的痕迹，让读者读译作就完全像在读原作一样。化境是比传神更高的翻译标准。） They two follow the principle of faithfulness. 4. In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, there appeared another translator, the monk Dao An ( 释道安 ). He suggested “preaching preaching preaching preaching according according according according to the original original original original without without without without any deduction deduction deduction deduction or addition addition addition addition” (案本而传，不令有损言游字: 按照原文的本意). In the history of western translation theories, there appeared a lot of translation theorists. Here we only mention some representative opinions on translation criteria. Alexander Fraster Tytler proposed the famous three principles in his essay on the principles of translation, in which he thought that “the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and the manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; the translation should