Availableonlineatwww.sciencedirect.com JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DIRECT BUSINESS 要 RESEARCH ELSEVIER loumal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 The brand attitude formation process of emotional and informational ads Changjo Yoo a*. Deborah MacInnis b, * Department of Business, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea Marshall School of Business, University of Southen California, Los Angeles, 90089, CA Received I June 2003: received in revised form I June 2004: accepted I March 2005 Abstract This study examines brand attitude formation process by ad execution format(emotional vs. informational). For ads with an emotional ad format, heightening positive feelings and reducing negative feelings enhanced thoughts about credibility of the ad, which in turn affected ad attitudes and brand attitudes. For ads with an informational ad format, enhancing evaluative thoughts about the credibility of the ad enhanced positive feelings and reduced negative feelings. These variables in turn affected brand attitudes, both directly, and through the mediational influence of ad. These results have relevant theoretical implications for studying the various processes by which brand attitudes are formed and have managerially relevant implications regarding advertising copy-testin C 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Keywords: Advertising execution; Attitude formation processes; Feelings; Credibility: Ad attitudes; Brand attitudes 1. The brand attitude formation process of emotional attitudes is still limited(Kim et aL, 1996; Kim et al., and informational ads 998) Moreover. little is known abo Emerging conceptual and empirical evidence has advertisers'control, such as the format of the ad, might lanced our understanding of factors that affect brand te the process by which brand attitudes are for attitudes( Chandy et al, 2001; MacInnis et al., 2002; Advertising agencies have long recognized ad execution Meyers-Levy and Malaviya, 1999; Vakratsas and Ambler, format(emotional vs. informational) as a useful tool 1999). A number of studies have identified cognitive strategic advertising management(Vaughn, 1980; Chandy et (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Lutz, 1975; Wright, 1972, al., 2001; MacInnis et al, 2002). Consistent with past 1980)and affective predictors of brand attitudes. In this research (e. g, Golden and Johnson, 1983: Goldberg and latter stream, considerable progress has been made Gorm, 1987), we define an emotional ad format as an ad understanding the role of emotions and ad evaluations as execution designed to appeal to the receivers emotions by predictors of brand attitudes(Brown et al, 1998; Derbais, using drama, mood, music and other emotion-eliciting 1995; Kim et al., 1998; Edell and Burke, 1987; Burke and strategies. An informational ad format is defined as an ad Edell, 1989; Aaker et al., 1986; Batra and Ray, 1986: execution designed to appeal to the rationality of the Holbrook and Batra, 1987). Unfortunately, our under- receiver by using objective information describing a brand's tanding of the potentially complex relationships between attributes or benefits feelings, beliefs and evaluations in their impact on brand The purpose of this study is to propose and examine different brand attitude formation processes by ad execution format type(emotional vs. informational). In doing so, we Corresponding authors. Yoo is to be contacted at Tel. +822 2260 3718 dhere to recent calls toward research that examine a multi MacInnis. Tel: +1 213 740 5039 path approach to persuasion in which consumers are E-mail addresses: yoo(@ dongguk.edu(C. Yoo), macinnis(@usc.edu(D proposed to respond to advertisements in different ways (Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999). We suggest that the process, 0148-2963/S.see front matter o 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/ bushes.2005.03.011
The brand attitude formation process of emotional and informational ads Changjo Yoo a,*, Deborah MacInnis b,* a Department of Business, Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea b Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 90089, CA Received 1 June 2003; received in revised form 1 June 2004; accepted 1 March 2005 Abstract This study examines brand attitude formation process by ad execution format (emotional vs. informational). For ads with an emotional ad format, heightening positive feelings and reducing negative feelings enhanced thoughts about credibility of the ad, which in turn affected ad attitudes and brand attitudes. For ads with an informational ad format, enhancing evaluative thoughts about the credibility of the ad enhanced positive feelings and reduced negative feelings. These variables in turn affected brand attitudes, both directly, and through the mediational influence of ad. These results have relevant theoretical implications for studying the various processes by which brand attitudes are formed and have managerially relevant implications regarding advertising copy-testing. D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Advertising execution; Attitude formation processes; Feelings; Credibility; Ad attitudes; Brand attitudes 1. The brand attitude formation process of emotional and informational ads Emerging conceptual and empirical evidence has advanced our understanding of factors that affect brand attitudes (Chandy et al., 2001; MacInnis et al., 2002; Meyers-Levy and Malaviya, 1999; Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999). A number of studies have identified cognitive (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Lutz, 1975; Wright, 1972, 1980) and affective predictors of brand attitudes. In this latter stream, considerable progress has been made in understanding the role of emotions and ad evaluations as predictors of brand attitudes (Brown et al., 1998; Derbais, 1995; Kim et al., 1998; Edell and Burke, 1987; Burke and Edell, 1989; Aaker et al., 1986; Batra and Ray, 1986; Holbrook and Batra, 1987). Unfortunately, our understanding of the potentially complex relationships between feelings, beliefs and evaluations in their impact on brand attitudes is still limited (Kim et al., 1996; Kim et al., 1998). Moreover, little is known about how variables under advertisers’ control, such as the format of the ad, might moderate the process by which brand attitudes are formed. Advertising agencies have long recognized ad execution format (emotional vs. informational) as a useful tool for strategic advertising management (Vaughn, 1980; Chandy et al., 2001; MacInnis et al., 2002). Consistent with past research (e.g., Golden and Johnson, 1983; Goldberg and Gorn, 1987), we define an emotional ad format as an ad execution designed to appeal to the receiver’s emotions by using drama, mood, music and other emotion-eliciting strategies. An informational ad format is defined as an ad execution designed to appeal to the rationality of the receiver by using objective information describing a brand’s attributes or benefits. The purpose of this study is to propose and examine different brand attitude formation processes by ad execution format type (emotional vs. informational). In doing so, we adhere to recent calls toward research that examine a multipath approach to persuasion in which consumers are proposed to respond to advertisements in different ways (Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999). We suggest that the process, 0148-2963/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2005.03.011 * Corresponding authors. Yoo is to be contacted at Tel.: +82 2 2260 3718. MacInnis, Tel.: +1 213 740 5039. E-mail addresses: yoo@dongguk.edu (C. Yoo), macinnis@usc.edu (D. MacInnis). Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406
C. Yoo, D MacInnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 by which brand attitudes are formed, depends on the nature meaningful or relevant to them. For example, recent work of the ad to which consumers are exposed. We begin by by MacInnis et al.(2002) shows that ads regarded describing the theoretical constructs that comprise our ideas. credible and meaningful are associated with increasing sales, even after controlling for other variables, including other evaluative thoughts 2. Constructs and hypotheses 2.1.2. Feelings We anticipate that informational vs emotional ad formats Studies have also focused on feelings(also known as create very different"routes"to persuasion, though each emotions)as predictors of ad attitudes( see review by Brown route depends critically on the evocation of a set of common et al.(1998). Feelings are defined as acute, transitory and responses. Fig. I identifies these constructs and summarizes specific affective experiences that occur as a result of some our ideas about the different routes to persuasion involved. experience(Holbrook and O'Shaughnessy, 1987) We define each construct used in the models below and then develop the hypotheses reflected in Fig. 1 2.1.3. Beliefs and ad attitudes(Aad) Many long-standing models of persuasion(e. g, Fishbein 2.1. Constructs and Ajzen, 1975; Lutz, 1975; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986; Petty and Wegener, 1993; Meyers-Levy and Malaviya, 2.1.1. Credibility and meaningfulness thoughts (hereafter 1999)hold that persuasion is contingent on a communica- credibility) tion's capacity to alter consumers' beliefs. Beliefs are Advertising research has long examined the role of defined as the strength with which a consumer associates evaluative responses or judgments of ads as predictors of a brand with a certain attribute or outcome(e.g, how brand attitudes(MacInnis et al., 2002; Batra and Ray, 1986; strongly they believe that a product has a whitening Holbrook and Batra, 1987; Edell and Burke, 1987; Homer ingredient or that it makes teeth 50% whiter than regular and Yoon, 1992; MacKenzie et al., 1986; MacKenzie and toothpaste brands). Notably, although beliefs are clearly Lutz, 1989; Stayman and Aaker, 1988). Indeed, a variety of linked to persuasion(e. g, Mick, 1992; Smith and Swinyard, scales of ad response have been developed to characterize 1982; Deighton, 1984), they are not the only predictor of consumers'evaluations of ads(e. g, Schlinger, 1979; Aaker brand attitudes (MacKenzie et al, 1986). Indeed, when and Norris 1982). Among the evaluations central to involvement in a purchase decision or product category is consumers'ad reactions, included are their assessments of low, consumers'brand attitudes may be more affected by the credibility of the ad and the extent to which it is their overall attitude toward (or global liking for) the ad tha a Emotional Ad Format HIb, H2b Credibility Negative H3 Belief Feelings b Informational Ad Format Aad Credibility HSb. H8b Feelings Fig. 1. Hypotheses and structural modeL
by which brand attitudes are formed, depends on the nature of the ad to which consumers are exposed. We begin by describing the theoretical constructs that comprise our ideas. 2. Constructs and hypotheses We anticipate that informational vs. emotional ad formats create very different ‘‘routes’’ to persuasion, though each route depends critically on the evocation of a set of common responses. Fig. 1 identifies these constructs and summarizes our ideas about the different routes to persuasion involved. We define each construct used in the models below and then develop the hypotheses reflected in Fig. 1. 2.1. Constructs 2.1.1. Credibility and meaningfulness thoughts (hereafter credibility) Advertising research has long examined the role of evaluative responses or judgments of ads as predictors of brand attitudes (MacInnis et al., 2002; Batra and Ray, 1986; Holbrook and Batra, 1987; Edell and Burke, 1987; Homer and Yoon, 1992; MacKenzie et al., 1986; MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989; Stayman and Aaker, 1988). Indeed, a variety of scales of ad response have been developed to characterize consumers’ evaluations of ads (e.g., Schlinger, 1979; Aaker and Norris 1982). Among the evaluations central to consumers’ ad reactions, included are their assessments of the credibility of the ad and the extent to which it is meaningful or relevant to them. For example, recent work by MacInnis et al. (2002) shows that ads regarded as credible and meaningful are associated with increasing sales, even after controlling for other variables, including other evaluative thoughts. 2.1.2. Feelings Studies have also focused on feelings (also known as emotions) as predictors of ad attitudes (see review by Brown et al. (1998)). Feelings are defined as acute, transitory and specific affective experiences that occur as a result of some experience (Holbrook and O’Shaughnessy, 1987). 2.1.3. Beliefs and ad attitudes (Aad) Many long-standing models of persuasion (e.g., Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Lutz, 1975; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986; Petty and Wegener, 1993; Meyers-Levy and Malaviya, 1999) hold that persuasion is contingent on a communication’s capacity to alter consumers’ beliefs. Beliefs are defined as the strength with which a consumer associates a brand with a certain attribute or outcome (e.g., how strongly they believe that a product has a whitening ingredient or that it makes teeth 50% whiter than regular toothpaste brands). Notably, although beliefs are clearly linked to persuasion (e.g., Mick, 1992; Smith and Swinyard, 1982; Deighton, 1984), they are not the only predictor of brand attitudes (MacKenzie et al., 1986). Indeed, when involvement in a purchase decision or product category is low, consumers’ brand attitudes may be more affected by their overall attitude toward (or global liking for) the ad than Fig. 1. Hypotheses and structural model. 1398 C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406
C. Yoo, D. Macinnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 1399 by beliefs engendered from the communication(e.g, Batra information and because information is less directly stated, and Stephens, 1994; MacInnis and Jaworski, 1989; Drodge beliefs may be weak and play a less powerful role than Aad 1989: Mitchell and Olson, 1981) in affecting brand attitude. Although beliefs may be weakly established in this emotional format condition. when an 2. 2. Brand attitude formation process using an emotional emotional ad creates strong feelings and creates favorable thoughts about the ads credibility and meaningfulness, it creates a sense that the brand is"for them"independent of When the ad execution format is emotional, the primary specific attribute-oriented beliefs. Thus, we expect that responses to advertising exposure are likely to be feelings- H2. When the ad execution is emotional, thoughts about the as the ad execution is designed to appeal to the viewer's ads credibility influence brand attitudes(a)directly and (b) emotions. Feelings evoked in response to emotional ads are indirectly through the mediating influence of Aad hypothesized to influence Aad in two ways. First, they may do so directly, through an affective transfer mechanism. Past If an ad is regarded as more meaningful and relevant to research is consistent with this proposed effect (e. g, the self, consumers may form stronger beliefs about the niszewski, 1988). For example, the literature on mood product's ability to deliver its claims. Edell and Burke states indicates that mood can bias evaluations and judg-(1987) and Burke and Edell(1989) found that feelings and ments in mood congruent conditions(Gardner, 1985; Isen, ad evaluations influenced beliefs and that feelings influ 1989). Second, the impact of feelings on Aad may also be enced beliefs directly and indirectly through ad evaluations mediated by thoughts about the ads credibility. Emotional We expect that for ads with an emotional format this same ads may draw the consumer into the ad and allow them to route occurs. Beliefs may be inferred based on the emotional experience vicariously the experiences of the actor(Batra ad content and the associated feelings and evaluations it and Stayman, 1990; MacInnis and Stayman, 1993). To the produces. For example, based on an emotional ad, which extent that feelings associated with the actor(s) can be shows a daughter talking to her father on the telephone, a experienced by the viewer, the ads may be seen as more consumer may believe that a long-distance phone service convincing(Bagozzi and Moore, 1994). Ads regarded as elps bring people closer together. Feelings of warmth from convincing should in turn be better liked. Hence part of thethe commercial may engender such beliefs. Thus we effect of feelings on Aad may be mediated through thoughts propose about the ads credibility. Relatedly, prior research suggests that positive feelings induced by mood can create more H3. When the ad execution is emotional, feelings influence cognitive flexibility, allowing consumers to draw associa- beliefs(a) directly and(b) indirectly through the mediational tions and see things as meaningful that might not have been influence of credibility seen in the absence of such a mood(e.g, Lee and Sternthal, 1999: Barone et al., 2000). Since meaning of the ad is H4. When the ad execution is emotional, beliefs influence brand attitudes enhanced by mood-induced cognitive flexibility, we would expect that positive feelings induced by an ad would lead a view of the ad as meaningful and that responses about 2.3. Brand attitude formation process using an meaningfulness would induce more favorable attitudes informational ad forman toward the brand. Thus we propose that HI. When the ad execution is emotional, feelings influence An informational ad execution is designed to appe Aad (a) directly and(b) indirectly through the mediating the rationality of the audience(MacInnis et al., 2002; influence of credibility thoughts Vaughn, 1980). Hence, as Fig. I suggests, we expect that the primary response of audience concerns evaluative thoughts When the ad execution is emotional, we also expect that regarding the ads credibility. Credibility thoughts may in positive evaluative thoughts generated about the credibility turn affect consumers'feeling responses For example, an ad of the ad will contribute to consumers'attitudes toward perceived as credible is less likely to make consumers feel ad. Given that past research has found a strong relationship skeptical, irritated or annoyed. Likewise, when the ad between ad and brand attitudes under a variety of execution is informational, consumers should like ads that conditions, we expect that positive evaluative thoughts will are convincing and meaningful. Moreover, to the extent that affect brand attitudes in part through the mediational consumers feel less skeptical, irritated, and annoyed, they influence of Aad( Brown and Stayman, 1992). Considerable should like the ad better. Thus, positively valenced research has shown that attitudes toward ads are more credibility thoughts may also affect ad attitudes by positive for ads regarded as convincing and believable(e.g the negative feelings consumers have from the ad. Schlinger, 1979; Plummer, 1971; Aaker and Norris, 1982). although feelings have typically been modeled However, credibility may also directly affect brand attitudes. cedents to ad evaluations, here we propose that credibility Moreover, this direct effect may not operate through beliefs. evaluations drive feeling responses. Given that informa Specifically, because an emotional ad contains less factual tional ads are unlikely to elicit much emotion from their
by beliefs engendered from the communication (e.g., Batra and Stephens, 1994; MacInnis and Jaworski, 1989; Drodge, 1989; Mitchell and Olson, 1981). 2.2. Brand attitude formation process using an emotional Ad format When the ad execution format is emotional, the primary responses to advertising exposure are likely to be feelings— as the ad execution is designed to appeal to the viewer’s emotions. Feelings evoked in response to emotional ads are hypothesized to influence Aad in two ways. First, they may do so directly, through an affective transfer mechanism. Past research is consistent with this proposed effect (e.g., Janiszewski, 1988). For example, the literature on mood states indicates that mood can bias evaluations and judgments in mood congruent conditions (Gardner, 1985; Isen, 1989). Second, the impact of feelings on Aad may also be mediated by thoughts about the ad’s credibility. Emotional ads may draw the consumer into the ad and allow them to experience vicariously the experiences of the actor (Batra and Stayman, 1990; MacInnis and Stayman, 1993). To the extent that feelings associated with the actor(s) can be experienced by the viewer, the ads may be seen as more convincing (Bagozzi and Moore, 1994). Ads regarded as convincing should in turn be better liked. Hence part of the effect of feelings on Aad may be mediated through thoughts about the ad’s credibility. Relatedly, prior research suggests that positive feelings induced by mood can create more cognitive flexibility, allowing consumers to draw associations and see things as meaningful that might not have been seen in the absence of such a mood (e.g., Lee and Sternthal, 1999; Barone et al., 2000). Since meaning of the ad is enhanced by mood-induced cognitive flexibility, we would expect that positive feelings induced by an ad would lead to a view of the ad as meaningful and that responses about meaningfulness would induce more favorable attitudes toward the brand. Thus we propose that: H1. When the ad execution is emotional, feelings influence Aad (a) directly and (b) indirectly through the mediating influence of credibility thoughts. When the ad execution is emotional, we also expect that positive evaluative thoughts generated about the credibility of the ad will contribute to consumers’ attitudes toward the ad. Given that past research has found a strong relationship between ad and brand attitudes under a variety of conditions, we expect that positive evaluative thoughts will affect brand attitudes in part through the mediational influence of Aad (Brown and Stayman, 1992). Considerable research has shown that attitudes toward ads are more positive for ads regarded as convincing and believable (e.g., Schlinger, 1979; Plummer, 1971; Aaker and Norris, 1982). However, credibility may also directly affect brand attitudes. Moreover, this direct effect may not operate through beliefs. Specifically, because an emotional ad contains less factual information and because information is less directly stated, beliefs may be weak and play a less powerful role than Aad in affecting brand attitude. Although beliefs may be weakly established in this emotional format condition, when an emotional ad creates strong feelings and creates favorable thoughts about the ad’s credibility and meaningfulness, it creates a sense that the brand is ‘‘for them’’ independent of specific attribute-oriented beliefs. Thus, we expect that: H2. When the ad execution is emotional, thoughts about the ad’s credibility influence brand attitudes (a) directly and (b) indirectly through the mediating influence of Aad. If an ad is regarded as more meaningful and relevant to the self, consumers may form stronger beliefs about the product’s ability to deliver its claims. Edell and Burke (1987) and Burke and Edell (1989) found that feelings and ad evaluations influenced beliefs and that feelings influenced beliefs directly and indirectly through ad evaluations. We expect that for ads with an emotional format this same route occurs. Beliefs may be inferred based on the emotional ad content and the associated feelings and evaluations it produces. For example, based on an emotional ad, which shows a daughter talking to her father on the telephone, a consumer may believe that a long-distance phone service helps bring people closer together. Feelings of warmth from the commercial may engender such beliefs. Thus we propose: H3. When the ad execution is emotional, feelings influence beliefs (a) directly and (b) indirectly through the mediational influence of credibility. H4. When the ad execution is emotional, beliefs influence brand attitudes. 2.3. Brand attitude formation process using an informational ad format An informational ad execution is designed to appeal to the rationality of the audience (MacInnis et al., 2002; Vaughn, 1980). Hence, as Fig. 1 suggests, we expect that the primary response of audience concerns evaluative thoughts regarding the ad’s credibility. Credibility thoughts may in turn affect consumers’ feeling responses. For example, an ad perceived as credible is less likely to make consumers feel skeptical, irritated or annoyed. Likewise, when the ad execution is informational, consumers should like ads that are convincing and meaningful. Moreover, to the extent that consumers feel less skeptical, irritated, and annoyed, they should like the ad better. Thus, positively valenced credibility thoughts may also affect ad attitudes by reducing the negative feelings consumers have from the ad. Notably, although feelings have typically been modeled as antecedents to ad evaluations, here we propose that credibility evaluations drive feeling responses. Given that informational ads are unlikely to elicit much emotion from their C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406 1399
C. Yoo, D MacInnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 content directly, it seems reasonable that aroused emotions talking to her father over the phone about how much she result from evaluation of the ads, as opposed to the misses him execution. Combined, our reasoning suggests that None of the pretested ads typified an informational ad H5. When the ad execution is informational, credibility execution. To create an informational ad execution. we oughts affect Aad(a) directly and(b) indirectly through replaced the audio of the emotional ad with a voice-over, their mediational effect on feelings which stated attribute information about the long-distance company(e.g, operation service, quality of sound, and etc. Another aspect of evaluative thoughts is that when the ad The visual aspects of the ad (with the girl talking to her execution is informational, it should affect beliefs. For father over the phone) were unchanged example, the more credible the ad execution is, the stronger efore manipulating the informational ad format con- consumers'beliefs about the brand are likely to be(petty dition, we reviewed informational type of the AT and T ads and Cacioppo, 1986; MacInnis and Jaworski, 1989). Since Typical type of the informational ad was to explain excellent the information provided by beliefs may provide the operation service, sound quality, 24 h service and etc. with a opportunity for consumers to form relatively strong brand talking scene. Therefore, we expected that we can create beliefs, beliefs may be an important predictor of brand typical type of informational ad by replacing audio of the attitudes(see Lutz, 1975). Thus we propose that Moreover, keeping the visual aspects of both ads H6. When the ad execution is informational, thoughts about constant across both ad execution conditions allowed us to the ad's credibility influence beliefs control for potentially confounding factors that might be H7. When the ad execution is informational, beliefs involved with the use of totally different ads. Ads in both influence brand attitudes conditions began with the same introductory song, followed by the narration(conversation of girl with her father; As noted above, informational ads can influence feelings announcer's statement of brand benef th ended with by affecting the credibility thoughts consumers have the logo and announcement of the company name. The towards ads. These feelings may, in turn, influence how visuals, announcer, music, logo, ad sequence and ad length much consumers like the ad. Thus, consumers are unlikely are thus identical in the two ads. to like ads that make them feel irritable, skeptical,or An additional pretest with forty consumers was conducted annoyed. We expect, then, that feelings influence ad to assess the success of the informational ad execution attitudes and that they affect brand attitudes through the manipulation. The mean emotionality and informationality mediational influence of Aad. Thus we propose that scores of this new ad were 2.98(emotionality score of original emotional ad: 5.07)and 4.23 (informationality score H8. When the ad execution is informational, feelings of original ad: 2.45). We found significant mean differences influence Ab(a)directly and(b) indirectly through between emotional and informational ad with respect to mediational influence of Aad emotionality and informationality scores (P<.001) Because we are interested in the processes by which brand attitudes are formed and because we wished to create 3. Method homogeneity across consumers in the nature of the exposure 3.1 Stimulus selection novel ad for a novel brand. for both the informational and emotional commercials, the original telephone companys To experimentally manipulate emotional and informa- logo and signature were removed and were replaced by a tional ad execution format and examine their effects on the novel company name and logo. The introductory song was brand attitude formation processes noted above, we pre- also replaced with new music, as the original song is likely tested the informational and emotional ad format of fourteen to have cued the company name. As described below, our commercials using forty subjects. All commercials were for analyses included only subjects who reported unfamiliarity a long-distance telephone company. Subjects were asked to with the commercial and had no prior association of it with view the ads and rate the extent to which they seemed to the original commercial characterize an emotional ys. informational ad execution format. Several 7-point Likert scaled items were used to 3.2. Subjects, design and procedur measure emotional ad format (this ad appeals to my emotion,, this ad creates a mood,)and informational ad Two hundred two students were randomly assigned to format ('this ad appeals to my rationality, this ad provides either the informational or emotional ad execution con- a lot of information). One ad typified the emotional ad dition. In each exposure setting, subjects watched the format (mean emotionality score of 5.07)and was regarded designated commercial twice with a 10-s lag between as relatively weak on informationality(mean information- exposures. Questionnaires were administered immediately ality score of 2.45). This commercial shows a daughter following the second exposure and measures of Ab and Aad
content directly, it seems reasonable that aroused emotions result from evaluation of the ads, as opposed to the execution. Combined, our reasoning suggests that: H5. When the ad execution is informational, credibility thoughts affect Aad (a) directly and (b) indirectly through their mediational effect on feelings. Another aspect of evaluative thoughts is that when the ad execution is informational, it should affect beliefs. For example, the more credible the ad execution is, the stronger consumers’ beliefs about the brand are likely to be (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986; MacInnis and Jaworski, 1989). Since the information provided by beliefs may provide the opportunity for consumers to form relatively strong brand beliefs, beliefs may be an important predictor of brand attitudes (see Lutz, 1975). Thus we propose that: H6. When the ad execution is informational, thoughts about the ad’s credibility influence beliefs. H7. When the ad execution is informational, beliefs influence brand attitudes. As noted above, informational ads can influence feelings by affecting the credibility thoughts consumers have towards ads. These feelings may, in turn, influence how much consumers like the ad. Thus, consumers are unlikely to like ads that make them feel irritable, skeptical, or annoyed. We expect, then, that feelings influence ad attitudes and that they affect brand attitudes through the mediational influence of Aad. Thus we propose that: H8. When the ad execution is informational, feelings influence Ab (a) directly and (b) indirectly through mediational influence of Aad. 3. Method 3.1. Stimulus selection To experimentally manipulate emotional and informational ad execution format and examine their effects on the brand attitude formation processes noted above, we pretested the informational and emotional ad format of fourteen commercials using forty subjects. All commercials were for a long-distance telephone company. Subjects were asked to view the ads and rate the extent to which they seemed to characterize an emotional vs. informational ad execution format. Several 7-point Likert scaled items were used to measure emotional ad format (Fthis ad appeals to my emotion_, Fthis ad creates a mood_) and informational ad format (Fthis ad appeals to my rationality_, Fthis ad provides a lot of information_). One ad typified the emotional ad format (mean emotionality score of 5.07) and was regarded as relatively weak on informationality (mean informationality score of 2.45). This commercial shows a daughter talking to her father over the phone about how much she misses him. None of the pretested ads typified an informational ad execution. To create an informational ad execution, we replaced the audio of the emotional ad with a voice-over, which stated attribute information about the long-distance company (e.g., operation service, quality of sound, and etc.). The visual aspects of the ad (with the girl talking to her father over the phone) were unchanged. Before manipulating the informational ad format condition, we reviewed informational type of the AT and T ads. Typical type of the informational ad was to explain excellent operation service, sound quality, 24 h service and etc. with a talking scene. Therefore, we expected that we can create typical type of informational ad by replacing audio of the emotional ad. Moreover, keeping the visual aspects of both ads constant across both ad execution conditions allowed us to control for potentially confounding factors that might be involved with the use of totally different ads. Ads in both conditions began with the same introductory song, followed by the narration (conversation of girl with her father; announcer’s statement of brand benefits). Both ended with the logo and announcement of the company name. The visuals, announcer, music, logo, ad sequence and ad length are thus identical in the two ads. An additional pretest with forty consumers was conducted to assess the success of the informational ad execution manipulation. The mean emotionality and informationality scores of this new ad were 2.98 (emotionality score of original emotional ad: 5.07) and 4.23 (informationality score of original ad: 2.45). We found significant mean differences between emotional and informational ad with respect to emotionality and informationality scores ( p <.001). Because we are interested in the processes by which brand attitudes are formed and because we wished to create homogeneity across consumers in the nature of the exposure and processing task, we wanted to expose consumers to a novel ad for a novel brand. For both the informational and emotional commercials, the original telephone company’s logo and signature were removed and were replaced by a novel company name and logo. The introductory song was also replaced with new music, as the original song is likely to have cued the company name. As described below, our analyses included only subjects who reported unfamiliarity with the commercial and had no prior association of it with the original commercial. 3.2. Subjects, design and procedures Two hundred two students were randomly assigned to either the informational or emotional ad execution condition. In each exposure setting, subjects watched the designated commercial twice with a 10-s lag between exposures. Questionnaires were administered immediately following the second exposure and measures of Ab and Aad 1400 C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406
C. Yoo, D. Macinnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 1401 were collected. Consumers subsequently indicated their judgment scale. Notably, these items are more"cognitive clings, evaluations of the ad, and beliefs about brand in nature, as they reflect judgment of the ad's credibility and attributes. Since some customers may have been familiar relevance(e.g, believable, realistic, valuable, and informa with the commercial even with these changes, we checked tive). As such, we regard them as indicators of our familiarity of the ad using five-point scale (not familiar at debility"construct. all-very familiar)at the end of the study. We retained one Belief strength(the b; factor) was also assessed Consum- hundred ninety subjects who indicated 1 or 2 on the ers' perceptions that the brand possessed five brand-relevant familiarity scale in subsequent ana attributes were measured on a 7-point scale ranging from “ extremely unlikely"to“ extremely likely”(bi).Thus, subjects rated the extent to which the advertised phone 4. Measures service(1)offered high quality service, (2)had 24-h operator service,(3)entailed considerable coverage across service Aad and Ab were each measured by four items (like areas, (4)offered a discount price, and (5)offered refunds for dislike, positive-negative, good-bad, and favorable wrong calls Evaluations of salient attributes of the advertised unfavorable)designed to assess consumers'attitudes toward brand(the ei factor)were also assessed via 7-point scales the brand and commercial, respectively. Each item was ranging from"extremely good"to"extremely bad"(Fish- scored on a seven-point semantic differential scale( Cron- bein and Ajzen, 1975). The belief strength indicators bachs alpha=96 and 93, respectively) represented a formative scale and the items were summed Feelings were assessed by a twenty-one item-scale. to form a composite index ubjects were told, "We are interested in your reactions to the ad, not how you describe it. Did this commercial make you feel.. ?"Responses to the twenty-one items were 5. Analysis and results scored on a seven-point scale(not at all-very much). Scale items were derived from cognitive response data collected in 5.1. Manipulation check a pilot study and feelings generated from Edell and Burke's (1987)feeling scales. Specifically, the items were designed As might be expected from the manipulation of ad to represent Edell and Burke's upbeat(e.g, delighted, execution format, an analysis of mean differences revealed elated, and stimulated), negative (e.g, sad, sorrowful, that consumers exposed to the emotional ad execution had distressed, irritated, angry, annoyed, offended, and significantly more positive feelings (r=4.82) than consum- depressed), and warm(e.g, sentimental, affectionate, ers exposed to the informational ad execution (X=3. 12: warmhearted, touched, and moved) feelings factors 1=6.32, p<.05). Moreover, consumers had significantly Subjects were also asked to indicate their evaluations of stronger beliefs when exposed to the informational ad the ad. Twenty items were designed to indicate ad (X=98.45)vS. the emotional ad execution (X=72. 84 evaluations. Subjects were told, "Now we are interested t=4.08, P<.05). These were the only variables for which in your evaluations or judgments about the ads, not just significant differences across the two experimental groups your feelings from the ad. Subjects indicated on seven were observed. Tests for homogeneity of variance showed point agreement scales the extent to which they agreed that that the variances of each variable across the two ad the adjective characterized the commercial. Items included conditions did not differ. Edell and Burke's (1987) evaluation(e.g, realistic, convincing, meaningful, valuable, and informative), activ- 5.2. Measure validation (e. g, exciting, energetic, amusing, playful, unique, and sepfoiatory factor analysis(principal component analy- and Sorbom, 1996). Because retaining each item as a imaginative), and gentleness(e. g, soothing, tender, lovely The model in Fig. I was analyzed by a maximum and gentle) factors. ikelihood estimation procedure using LISREL &(Joreskog sis) of feelings and evaluations revealed three factors with reflective indicator of its constructs would result in eigenvalues greater than one. The first factor was comprised identification problem, we used an adaptation of Anderson of positive emotions and emotion like evaluations that load and Gerbing's(1988) two-step approach to structural on Edell and Burke's activity and gentleness scales (e. g, equation modeling. soothing and amusing). The second represented negative First, we estimated a confirmatory measurement or factor emotions and negative emotion-like evaluations(e.g, sad, analytic model (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996), including orrowful, distressed, irritated, angry, annoyed, offended, constructs of positive feelings, negative feelings, credibility, and depressed). The factors are subsequently labeled and beliefs. Summary statistics of confirmatory factor positive feelings and negative feelings. Notably, sad and analyses are summarized in Table 1 sorrowful feelings loaded on the positive feelings factor. We Second. we estimated the overall structural model return to this issue subsequently. The last factor is indicated Because retaining each item as a reflective indicator would by a set of items reflecting Edell and Burke's evaluation result in identification problems, we combined items into a
were collected. Consumers subsequently indicated their feelings, evaluations of the ad, and beliefs about brand attributes. Since some customers may have been familiar with the commercial even with these changes, we checked familiarity of the ad using five-point scale (not familiar at all – very familiar) at the end of the study. We retained one hundred ninety subjects who indicated 1 or 2 on the familiarity scale in subsequent analyses. 4. Measures Aad and Ab were each measured by four items (like – dislike, positive – negative, good – bad, and favorable – unfavorable) designed to assess consumers’ attitudes toward the brand and commercial, respectively. Each item was scored on a seven-point semantic differential scale (Cronbach’s alpha =.96 and .93, respectively). Feelings were assessed by a twenty-one item-scale. Subjects were told, ‘‘We are interested in your reactions to the ad, not how you describe it. Did this commercial make you feel ... ?’’ Responses to the twenty-one items were scored on a seven-point scale (not at all – very much). Scale items were derived from cognitive response data collected in a pilot study and feelings generated from Edell and Burke’s (1987) feeling scales. Specifically, the items were designed to represent Edell and Burke’s upbeat (e.g., delighted, elated, and stimulated), negative (e.g., sad, sorrowful, distressed, irritated, angry, annoyed, offended, and depressed), and warm (e.g., sentimental, affectionate, warmhearted, touched, and moved) feelings factors. Subjects were also asked to indicate their evaluations of the ad. Twenty items were designed to indicate ad evaluations. Subjects were told, ‘‘Now we are interested in your evaluations or judgments about the ads, not just your feelings from the ad.’’ Subjects indicated on sevenpoint agreement scales the extent to which they agreed that the adjective characterized the commercial. Items included Edell and Burke’s (1987) evaluation (e.g., realistic, convincing, meaningful, valuable, and informative), activity (e.g., exciting, energetic, amusing, playful, unique, and imaginative), and gentleness (e.g., soothing, tender, lovely, and gentle) factors. Exploratory factor analysis (principal component analysis) of feelings and evaluations revealed three factors with eigenvalues greater than one. The first factor was comprised of positive emotions and emotion like evaluations that load on Edell and Burke’s activity and gentleness scales (e.g., soothing and amusing). The second represented negative emotions and negative emotion-like evaluations (e.g., sad, sorrowful, distressed, irritated, angry, annoyed, offended, and depressed). The factors are subsequently labeled positive feelings and negative feelings. Notably, sad and sorrowful feelings loaded on the positive feelings factor. We return to this issue subsequently. The last factor is indicated by a set of items reflecting Edell and Burke’s evaluation judgment scale. Notably, these items are more ‘‘cognitive’’ in nature, as they reflect judgment of the ad’s credibility and relevance (e.g., believable, realistic, valuable, and informative). As such, we regard them as indicators of our ‘‘credibility’’ construct. Belief strength (the bi factor) was also assessed. Consumers’ perceptions that the brand possessed five brand-relevant attributes were measured on a 7-point scale ranging from ‘‘extremely unlikely’’ to ‘‘extremely likely’’ (bi). Thus, subjects rated the extent to which the advertised phone service (1) offered high quality service, (2) had 24-h operator service, (3) entailed considerable coverage across service areas, (4) offered a discount price, and (5) offered refunds for wrong calls. Evaluations of salient attributes of the advertised brand (the ei factor) were also assessed via 7-point scales ranging from ‘‘extremely good’’ to ‘‘extremely bad’’ (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). The belief strength indicators represented a formative scale and the items were summed to form a composite index. 5. Analysis and results 5.1. Manipulation check As might be expected from the manipulation of ad execution format, an analysis of mean differences revealed that consumers exposed to the emotional ad execution had significantly more positive feelings (X = 4.82) than consumers exposed to the informational ad execution (X = 3.12; t = 6.32, p <.05). Moreover, consumers had significantly stronger beliefs when exposed to the informational ad (X = 98.45) vs. the emotional ad execution (X = 72.84, t = 4.08, p <.05). These were the only variables for which significant differences across the two experimental groups were observed. Tests for homogeneity of variance showed that the variances of each variable across the two ad conditions did not differ. 5.2. Measure validation The model in Fig. 1 was analyzed by a maximum likelihood estimation procedure using LISREL 8 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996). Because retaining each item as a reflective indicator of its constructs would result in identification problem, we used an adaptation of Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) two-step approach to structural equation modeling. First, we estimated a confirmatory measurement or factor analytic model (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996), including constructs of positive feelings, negative feelings, credibility, and beliefs. Summary statistics of confirmatory factor analyses are summarized in Table 1. Second, we estimated the overall structural model. Because retaining each item as a reflective indicator would result in identification problems, we combined items into a C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406 1401
C. Yoo, D MacInnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 Table 1 Standardized LISREL estimates I ad format 1l(PF→ Credibility) 35 2.80 11(Credibility-+PF) 212(NF-Credibility) 2.18 72l( Credibility→NF) 2l(PF→ Beliefs) 07 45 731( Credibility-Beliefs) 722(NF→ Beliefs) 741(Credibility-Aad) 31(PF→Aad) 阝41(PF一Aa 32(NF→Aad) 2.12 B42(NF→Aad) 664 21(Cre → Beliefs) 2.67* B51(PF→Ab) 40029953 阝31(Cre 45* B52(NF→Ab) →Ab) 33323 3.45* B53( Beliefs→Aad 25 2.25* B42( Beliefs→Ab) B54(Aad→Ab 2.96 B43(Aad→Ab) 3.06* φ12(PF…NF x2(d=46)=3592,p=201 x2(d=48)=6472,p=.084 GFI= 91 RMSR=04 RMSR=056 CFI=952 PNFI=.646 PNFI=.66 *p<,01 *p<001 single indicator measure(see MacKenzie and Lutz(1989)or (731=.14, p=ns). Thus, the results support Hla only for the advantages of a single indicator). Constructs were not negative feelings assumed to be perfectly indicated. The measurement error Consistent with H2a and H2b, credibility thoughts terms were fixed at one minus the square root of their significantly affected Aad (B31=35, P<.01)and Ab reliability coefficients(Hayduk, 1987). We tested models in (B41=34, p<.01). Aad also significantly affected Ab Fig. 1 by ad execution conditions (B43=.30, P<.05). Consistent with H3a, credibility thoughts Overall fits of the models for the emotional ad execution have a significant positive effect on beliefs (B21=37, (x2(46)=35.92,p<.201;GFI=950;AGF1=926;RMSR p<.05). However, no significant effects of positive or 047; CFI=972; PNFI=646) and model for informational negative feelings on beliefs (721=.07, p=ns: 731=.15 ad execution (z"(48)=64.72, P<084; GFI=916: AGFI- p=ns)emerged. Thus, feelings seem to influence beliefs 863; RMSR=056: CFI=952; PNFI=665) were accept- only through the mediational effect of credibility. Beliefs able. The Q Plot, the low number of high normalized significantly influence brand attitudes (B42=23, P<.05), residuals (i.e, only two exceed 2.0), the t-tests, and range supporting H4 of values(e. g, no negative variances) suggest that each model is acceptable. Thus the hypothesized model appears to fit the data. Structural equation model estimates are summar- ized in table 2 Summary results of confirmatory factor analyses Construc No of Reliability(variance Lowest t-value 5.3. Test of hypotheses items extracted estimate)(average of 4) methodology by ad execution condition. Results are Belies elings7 We tested our hypotheses using structural equations .92(.641) Phi-values(standard error of the estimates) 531. Emotional ad execution condition Consistent with HIb both positive feelings (711=35, p<o1)and negative feelings(7=-27,p<.05)signifi- 2.Negative feelings -.253(060) cantly affect credibility. Credibility, in turn, influences Aad 3. Credibility thoughts -.521(.048)-.239(.061) (B31=35, p<.05). Thus HIb is supported. Negative4Beliefs -.276(077)-234(079)379(.075) feelings also influence Aad directly (732=-.26, P<.05) Overall fit indices: x'(345)=480.42(P<.000 However, positive feelings have no direct effects on Aad Comparative fit index=952
single indicator measure (see MacKenzie and Lutz (1989) or the advantages of a single indicator). Constructs were not assumed to be perfectly indicated. The measurement error terms were fixed at one minus the square root of their reliability coefficients (Hayduk, 1987). We tested models in Fig. 1 by ad execution conditions. Overall fits of the models for the emotional ad execution (v2 (46) = 35.92, p <.201; GFI = .950; AGFI =.926; RMSR = .047; CFI = .972; PNFI =.646) and model for informational ad execution (v2 (48) = 64.72, p <.084; GFI = .916; AGFI = .863; RMSR =.056; CFI =.952; PNFI =.665) were acceptable. The Q Plot, the low number of high normalized residuals (i.e., only two exceed 2.0), the t-tests, and range of values (e. g., no negative variances) suggest that each model is acceptable. Thus the hypothesized model appears to fit the data. Structural equation model estimates are summarized in Table 2. 5.3. Test of hypotheses We tested our hypotheses using structural equations methodology by ad execution condition. Results are summarized in Fig. 2. 5.3.1. Emotional ad execution condition Consistent with H1b both positive feelings (c11 = .35, p <.01) and negative feelings (c12 =.27, p <.05) significantly affect credibility. Credibility, in turn, influences Aad (b31 =.35, p < .05). Thus H1b is supported. Negative feelings also influence Aad directly (c32 =.26, p <.05). However, positive feelings have no direct effects on Aad (c31 =.14, p = ns). Thus, the results support H1a only for negative feelings. Consistent with H2a and H2b, credibility thoughts significantly affected Aad (b31 =.35, p < .01) and Ab (b41 =.34, p < .01). Aad also significantly affected Ab (b43 = .30, p < .05). Consistent with H3a, credibility thoughts have a significant positive effect on beliefs (b21 =.37, p < .05). However, no significant effects of positive or negative feelings on beliefs (c21 =.07, p = ns; c31 =.15, p = ns) emerged. Thus, feelings seem to influence beliefs only through the mediational effect of credibility. Beliefs significantly influence brand attitudes (b42 =.23, p <.05), supporting H4. Table 2 Summary results of confirmatory factor analyses Constructs No. of items Reliability (variance extracted estimate) Lowest t-value (average of k) Positive feelings 14 .88 (.588) 3.64 (.69) Negative feelings 7 .92 (.641) 4.01 (.76) Credibility thoughts 6 .89 (.639) 4.23 (.74) Beliefs 1 Phi-values (standard error of the estimates) 1 2 34 1. Positive feelings – 2. Negative feelings .253 (.060) – 3. Credibility thoughts .521 (.048) .239 (.061) 4. Beliefs .276 (.077) .234 (.079) .379 (.075) – Overall fit indices: v2 (345) = 480.42 ( p <.000). Comparative fit index =.952. Table 1 Standardized LISREL estimates Emotional ad format Coefficient t-value Informational ad format Coefficient t-value c11 (PFYCredibility) .35 2.80* c11 (CredibilityYPF) .43 3.51** c12 (NFYCredibility) .27 2.18*** c21 (CredibilityYNF) .40 3.18** c21 (PFYBeliefs) .07 .45 c31 (CredibilityYBeliefs) .10 .96 c22 (NFYBeliefs) .09 .69 c41 (CredibilityYAad) .02 .06 c31 (PFYAad) .14 1.22 b41 (PFYAad) .49 3.66** c32 (NFYAad) .26 2.12*** b42 (NFYAad) .29 2.41* b21 (CredibilityYBeliefs) .37 2.67* b51 (PFYAb) .25 2.06*** b31 (CredibilityYAad) .35 2.45* b52 (NFYAb) .13 1.25 b41 (CredibilityYAb) .34 3.45* b53 (BeliefsYAad) .25 2.25* b42 (BeliefsYAb) .23 2.23 b54 (AadYAb) .32 2.96* b43 (AadYAb) .30 3.06* /12 (PF6NF) .08 .58 v2 (df = 46) = 35.92, p =.201 v2 (df = 48) = 64.72, p =.084 GFI =.950 GFI =.916 AGFI =.926 AGFI =.863 RMSR =.047 RMSR=.056 CFI =.972 CFI =.952 PNFI =.646 PNFI =.665 PF=positive feeling. NF=negative feeling. * p <.01. ** p <.001. *** p <.05. 1402 C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406
C. Yoo, D. Macinnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 a Emotional Ad Format β31=3 71=35 Credibility 41=34* Belief Feelings =0 b Informational Ad Format 51=25 =02 Positive =49 71=43* m21=-2 Negative β53=25 =,10 P05*=p<01**=p<001 Fig. 2. LISREL results: standardized estimate. 5.3.2. Informational ad execution condition (B41=49, p<.001) and negative feelings (B42=- 27. H5 states that Aad is influenced by credibility thoughts p<.01)also affect Aad and Aad, in turn, affects Ab both directly and indirectly through the mediating influence (B54=32, P<.01). These results are consistent with H8b, of feelings. The results support the mediational effect(H5b). suggesting that beyond their direct effects, positive and Specifically, credibility influenced both positive feelings negative feelings also affect brand attitudes indirectly (711=.43, p<.01) and negative feelings (721= through their mediating influence on Aad p<.001). Moreover, both positive and negative feel in turn, had significant effects on Aad (B41=49, P< 5.4. Efects of discrete negative feelings on Aad and Ab B42=- 29, p<.01, respectively). However, there is no evidence for a direct effect of credibility on Aad (7 41=. 02, e ad used resent the emotional ad execution condition shows a daughter talking on the phone to her father, H6 states that credibility thoughts influence beliefs. The telling him how much she misses him. This commercial may effect of credibility thoughts on beliefs is not significant arouse feelings of sadness or sorrow. These items have (731=.10, p=ns). Hence, H6 is rejected. The effect of typically been categorized as negative feelings in the beliefs on brand attitudes is significant (B53=25, P<.05) literature. However, these negative feelings may lead the and thus H7 is supported. These results were particularly viewers of this commercial to form favorable ad and brand interesting because beliefs were formed regardless of ad attitudes because they are relevant to the advertising message evaluations on credibility. In other words, the credibility To test this probable positive effect of feelings of sadness and influenced brand attitude through emotional routes (i. e, sorrow on Aad and Ab, simple regression analyses were feelings and Aad). These results suggest message itself and conducted by advertising execution condition. As expected message execution style are two independent factors in ad Aad and Ab are positively influenced by sad(Aad: B=38, effects p<.01 and Ab: B=32, P<.01)and sorrowful feelings(Aad H8a and H8b state that feelings influence brand attitudes B=43, p<.01 and Ab: B=39, p<.01)in the emotional both directly and indirectly through the mediating influence commercial. On the other hand, the same items negatively of Aad. The results support these hypotheses. Consistent influenced Aad(sad: B=-57, p<.01 and sorrowful: B with H8a, positive feelings have a direct effect on Ab -.62, P".2. 001)in the informational commercial. These 001)and Ab(sad: B=-.45, p<.01 and sorrowful (B51=23, P<.05), however negative feelings did not have B=-65, p a direct effect on Ab(B52=-13, p=ns). Positive feelings results indicate that the effects of negative feelings on Aad
5.3.2. Informational ad execution condition H5 states that Aad is influenced by credibility thoughts both directly and indirectly through the mediating influence of feelings. The results support the mediational effect (H5b). Specifically, credibility influenced both positive feelings (c11 = .43, p < .01) and negative feelings (c21 =.40, p <.001). Moreover, both positive and negative feelings, in turn, had significant effects on Aad (b41 =.49, p <.001; b42 =.29, p < .01, respectively). However, there is no evidence for a direct effect of credibility on Aad (c41 =.02, p = ns). H6 states that credibility thoughts influence beliefs. The effect of credibility thoughts on beliefs is not significant (c31 =.10, p = ns). Hence, H6 is rejected. The effect of beliefs on brand attitudes is significant (b53 =.25, p < .05) and thus H7 is supported. These results were particularly interesting because beliefs were formed regardless of ad evaluations on credibility. In other words, the credibility influenced brand attitude through emotional routes (i.e., feelings and Aad). These results suggest message itself and message execution style are two independent factors in ad effects. H8a and H8b state that feelings influence brand attitudes both directly and indirectly through the mediating influence of Aad. The results support these hypotheses. Consistent with H8a, positive feelings have a direct effect on Ab (b51 =.23, p < .05), however negative feelings did not have a direct effect on Ab (b52 =.13, p = ns). Positive feelings (b41 =.49, p <.001) and negative feelings (b42 =.27, p < .01) also affect Aad and Aad, in turn, affects Ab (b54 =.32, p <.01). These results are consistent with H8b, suggesting that beyond their direct effects, positive and negative feelings also affect brand attitudes indirectly through their mediating influence on Aad. 5.4. Effects of discrete negative feelings on Aad and Ab The ad used to represent the emotional ad execution condition shows a daughter talking on the phone to her father, telling him how much she misses him. This commercial may arouse feelings of sadness or sorrow. These items have typically been categorized as negative feelings in the literature. However, these negative feelings may lead the viewers of this commercial to form favorable ad and brand attitudes because they are relevant to the advertising message. To test this probable positive effect of feelings of sadness and sorrow on Aad and Ab, simple regression analyses were conducted by advertising execution condition. As expected, Aad and Ab are positively influenced by sad (Aad: b =.38, p <.01 and Ab: b =.32, p <.01) and sorrowful feelings (Aad: b =.43, p <.01 and Ab: b =.39, p < .01) in the emotional commercial. On the other hand, the same items negatively influenced Aad (sad: b =.57, p <.01 and sorrowful: b = .62, p <.001) and Ab (sad: b =.45, p <.01 and sorrowful: b =.65, p <.001) in the informational commercial. These results indicate that the effects of negative feelings on Aad Fig. 2. LISREL results: standardized estimate. C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406 1403
C. Yoo, D MacInnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 and Ab can be positive when these negative feelings from the types of cues in ads are not mediated through an evaluative ad are relevant to the commercial,s goals. Or the sad and system, but are direct in their effect. Aad, in turn, strongly sorrowful may provide viewers warmth feelings in this predicts brand attitudes. While attitudes are not belief-based, context they do seem to be directly affected by evaluative aspects of the ad that are not mediated through aad 5.5. Comparison of fits by ad execution condition When the ad execution is informational. the creation of positive brand attitudes appears to lie in creating favorable Because our idea is that ad execution format moderates evaluative thoughts and forming strong beliefs. Interest the brand attitude formation process, we ran two separate ingly, while each influences brand attitudes, favorable models--one for the emotional ad execution and one evaluative thoughts do not influence brand attitudes througl the informational ad execution, with paths corresponding the mediational influence of beliefs. Aad regarded as to those shown in Fig. 1. For each execution, we tested the meaningful and credible also produce more positive and paths shown in Fig. la and b. That is, we tested the extent fewer negative feelings. Such ads also influence ad attitudes to which the data from the emotional ad execution through the mediational influence of feelings. Moreover, condition fit the brand attitude formation process specified Aad mediates the effect of feelings on brand attitude in Fig. la and b. We also tested the extent to which the Interestingly, the brand attitude formation process for ads data from the informational execution condition fit the using informational appeals does not appear to represent the brand attitude formation process specified in Fig. la and b. viewer as a purely rational and emotionless information When we conducted the test, we included only significant processor. While such ads are designed to appeal initially to ths in Fig. 2 the viewer's rationality and while brand attitudes are Overall fit for emotional ad execution mod the affected by beliefs, feelings also play a dominant role in data from the emotional ad execution (x(46)=42.04, p= the brand attitude formation process. Likewise, the brand 162: GFI=952; AGFI=930)is better than with the data attitude formation process for ads using an emotional appea from the informational ad execution condition (x(49) does not appear to be purely affect-driven More cognitive 81.82, p=030: GFI=868: AGFI. 824). When the data driven outcomes like evaluative thoughts play an important from informational ad execution condition was applied to role in the ad effectiveness of emotional appeals, despite emotional ad execution model, the path from credibility to these ads'initial appeals to the viewer's emotions beliefs becomes insignificant. Also, overall fit for informa If these results are generalizable, a key managerial take- tional ad execution model with the data from the informa- away is that if the ad execution is emotional, it is critical that tional ad execution (x(50)=65.32, p=088; GFI=920; it be exceptionally emotionally evocative, as responses later AGFI. 878)is better than with the data from the emotional in the ad persuasion process are contingent on the nature and ad execution condition(x(50)=62.84, P=072: GFI= 878; level of emotional responses generated. If, on the other AGFI. 805). When the data from informational ad execu- hand, the execution is designed to be informational, tion condition was applied to emotional ad execution model, critical that the ad be regarded as credible and meaningful the path from negative feelings to Aad becomes insignif- From a pretesting standpoint then, our research identifies icant. These results indicate that we need to run two separate that different criteria are primary to ad pretesting, depending models by ad execution conditions on whether the ad is emotional or informational Our results also suggest that while certain variables may be critical assessment tools. one should not assume that 6. Conclusions feeling ads are devoid of cognitive influences on persuasion or vice versa. Feelings- and credibility-related responses The results of this study indicate that the brand attitude were related to Aad and ab regardless of whether the ad was ormation process depends on whether ads use an emotional emotional or informational. Hence, while certain variables or information executional format. When the commercial may be critical to diagnosing the likely success of emotional uses an emotional format, brand attitudes are apparently and informational ads, success of both ad format types is driven through feeling responses. Positive feelings enhance contingent on providing favorable feelings and evaluations evaluations of the ads credibility, while most negative of the ad as credible. clings result in negative evaluations of the ad and brand Interestingly, however, some negative feelings, which 6.1. Limitations and future research directions appear relevant to the communication, exhibit a positive influence on ad evaluations. Because the arousal of positiv Although this research had some control over ad-related feelings and appropriate negative feeling makes the ad more execution variables, generalizations from this study are ppealing, those feelings positively influence ad attitudes limited given the single ad, single product category used in through the mediational effect of evaluative thoughts. the study. Exposure is also artificial as subjects were Negative feelings unrelated to the message, however, exert instructed to watch ads as opposed to having ads placed a direct negative effect on ad attitudes. Apparently some in a normal exposure context. Moreover, the emotional vs
and Ab can be positive when these negative feelings from the ad are relevant to the commercial’s goals. Or the sad and sorrowful may provide viewers warmth feelings in this context. 5.5. Comparison of fits by ad execution condition Because our idea is that ad execution format moderates the brand attitude formation process, we ran two separate models—one for the emotional ad execution and one for the informational ad execution, with paths corresponding to those shown in Fig. 1. For each execution, we tested the paths shown in Fig. 1a and b. That is, we tested the extent to which the data from the emotional ad execution condition fit the brand attitude formation process specified in Fig. 1a and b. We also tested the extent to which the data from the informational execution condition fit the brand attitude formation process specified in Fig. 1a and b. When we conducted the test, we included only significant paths in Fig. 2. Overall fit for emotional ad execution model with the data from the emotional ad execution (v2 (46) = 42.04, p = 162; GFI =.952; AGFI =.930) is better than with the data from the informational ad execution condition (v2 (49) = 81.82, p =.030; GFI =.868; AGFI =.824). When the data from informational ad execution condition was applied to emotional ad execution model, the path from credibility to beliefs becomes insignificant. Also, overall fit for informational ad execution model with the data from the informational ad execution (v2 (50) = 65.32, p =.088; GFI =.920; AGFI = .878) is better than with the data from the emotional ad execution condition (v2 (50) = 62.84, p =.072; GFI =.878; AGFI = .805). When the data from informational ad execution condition was applied to emotional ad execution model, the path from negative feelings to Aad becomes insignificant. These results indicate that we need to run two separate models by ad execution conditions. 6. Conclusions The results of this study indicate that the brand attitude formation process depends on whether ads use an emotional or information executional format. When the commercial uses an emotional format, brand attitudes are apparently driven through feeling responses. Positive feelings enhance evaluations of the ad’s credibility, while most negative feelings result in negative evaluations of the ad and brand. Interestingly, however, some negative feelings, which appear relevant to the communication, exhibit a positive influence on ad evaluations. Because the arousal of positive feelings and appropriate negative feeling makes the ad more appealing, those feelings positively influence ad attitudes through the mediational effect of evaluative thoughts. Negative feelings unrelated to the message, however, exert a direct negative effect on ad attitudes. Apparently some types of cues in ads are not mediated through an evaluative system, but are direct in their effect. Aad, in turn, strongly predicts brand attitudes. While attitudes are not belief-based, they do seem to be directly affected by evaluative aspects of the ad that are not mediated through Aad. When the ad execution is informational, the creation of positive brand attitudes appears to lie in creating favorable evaluative thoughts and forming strong beliefs. Interestingly, while each influences brand attitudes, favorable evaluative thoughts do not influence brand attitudes through the mediational influence of beliefs. Aad regarded as meaningful and credible also produce more positive and fewer negative feelings. Such ads also influence ad attitudes through the mediational influence of feelings. Moreover, Aad mediates the effect of feelings on brand attitudes. Interestingly, the brand attitude formation process for ads using informational appeals does not appear to represent the viewer as a purely rational and emotionless information processor. While such ads are designed to appeal initially to the viewer’s rationality and while brand attitudes are affected by beliefs, feelings also play a dominant role in the brand attitude formation process. Likewise, the brand attitude formation process for ads using an emotional appeal does not appear to be purely affect-driven. More cognitivedriven outcomes like evaluative thoughts play an important role in the ad effectiveness of emotional appeals, despite these ads’ initial appeals to the viewer’s emotions. If these results are generalizable, a key managerial takeaway is that if the ad execution is emotional, it is critical that it be exceptionally emotionally evocative, as responses later in the ad persuasion process are contingent on the nature and level of emotional responses generated. If, on the other hand, the execution is designed to be informational, it is critical that the ad be regarded as credible and meaningful. From a pretesting standpoint then, our research identifies that different criteria are primary to ad pretesting, depending on whether the ad is emotional or informational. Our results also suggest that while certain variables may be critical assessment tools, one should not assume that feeling ads are devoid of cognitive influences on persuasion or vice versa. Feelings- and credibility-related responses were related to Aad and Ab regardless of whether the ad was emotional or informational. Hence, while certain variables may be critical to diagnosing the likely success of emotional and informational ads, success of both ad format types is contingent on providing favorable feelings and evaluations of the ad as credible. 6.1. Limitations and future research directions Although this research had some control over ad-related execution variables, generalizations from this study are limited given the single ad, single product category used in the study. Exposure is also artificial as subjects were instructed to watch ads as opposed to having ads placed in a normal exposure context. Moreover, the emotional vs. 1404 C. Yoo, D. MacInnis / Journal of Business Research 58 (2005) 1397 – 1406
C. Yoo, D. Macinnis /Journal of Business Research 58(2005)1397-1406 informational ad execution manipulation, though successful, Burke Marian C, Edell Julie A. The impact of feelin on ad-based affect is relatively weak since the latter ad contained the same and cognition. J Mark Res 1989; 26( February ) 69-83 images as the former. Because we artificially changed Chandy Rajesh, Tellis Gerard, MacInnis Deborah J, Thaivanich Pattana emotional ad to informational ad by replacing audio with What to say when: advertising appeals in evolving markets. J Mark Res 2001:38( November:399-414 voice-over, potential interactivity of message and visual Derbais Christian M. The impact of affective reactions on attitudes toward may influence brand attitude formation process in case of the advertisement and the brand: a step toward ecological validity. J informational ad condition. Another important limitation of Mark Res 1995: 32(November): 470-9 this research involves the regression modeling methodology, Deighton John. The interaction of advertising and evidence. J Consum Res 1984;110 December):763-70. which cannot unambiguously assess causality Drodge Cornelia. Shaping the route to attitude change: central versus On the other hand, the findings of this study suggest eripheral processing through comparative versus noncomparative several useful research directions. First, this study clearly dvertising. J Mark Res 1989: 30(May ) 193-204 shows different brand attitude formation processes, depend Edell Julie A, Burke Marian C. The power of feelings in understanding ing on the ad execution condition. Second, while prior advertising effects. J Consum Res 1987; 14(December): 421-33 Fishbein Martin, Ajzen Icek. Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an research has suggested that the brand attitude formation introduction to theory and research. Reading(MA): Addison Wesley process is contingent on antecedent consumer states such as consumers'motivation, ability and opportunity to process Gardner Meryl P. Mood states and consumer behavior: a critical review brand information in an ad, the potentially interactive role of J Consum Res 1985: 12(December ) 281-300. these antecedent consumer states with ad execution needs to Goldberg Marvin E, Gorm Gerald J. Happy and sad programs: how they affect reactions to commercials. J Consum Res 1987: 14(Decem- be investigated. For example, when consumers'motivation, ber):87-403 ability, and opportunity to process brand information are Golden Linda L, Johnson Karen A. The impact of sensory preference and high, evaluative thoughts and beliefs may play a more thinking versus feeling appeals on advertising effectiveness. In: Bagozzi dominant role than when such antecedent states are low R, Tybout A, editors. Advances in Consumer Research, vol 10. Provo Thus. even when the ad execution is emotional beliefs may Utah: Association of Consumer Research; 1983. p 203-8 Hayduk Leslie A. Structural equation modeling with LISREL. Baltimore directly affect brand attitudes. MD): The Johns Hopkins University Press: 1987. The study's findings coupled with the above issues Holbrook Morris B, Batra Rajeev. Assessing the role of emotions suggest that much remains to be known about the role of mediators of consumer responses to advertising. J C 14(December ) 404-20 variables on brand attitude formation processes and the role Holbrook. Morris B, O Shaughnessy John. The role of emotion in of negative feelings responses as elements of these Homer Pamela M, Yoon Sun-Gil. Message framing and the interrelation- processe ships among ad-based feelings, affect, and cognition. J Advert Cafferata Pat, Tybout Alice, editors. Cognitive and affective respons References to advertising. Lexington(MA): D. C. Heath and Company: 1989. Janiszewski Chris. 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informational ad execution manipulation, though successful, is relatively weak since the latter ad contained the same images as the former. Because we artificially changed emotional ad to informational ad by replacing audio with voice-over, potential interactivity of message and visual may influence brand attitude formation process in case of informational ad condition. Another important limitation of this research involves the regression modeling methodology, which cannot unambiguously assess causality. On the other hand, the findings of this study suggest several useful research directions. First, this study clearly shows different brand attitude formation processes, depending on the ad execution condition. Second, while prior research has suggested that the brand attitude formation process is contingent on antecedent consumer states such as consumers’ motivation, ability and opportunity to process brand information in an ad, the potentially interactive role of these antecedent consumer states with ad execution needs to be investigated. For example, when consumers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity to process brand information are high, evaluative thoughts and beliefs may play a more dominant role than when such antecedent states are low. Thus, even when the ad execution is emotional, beliefs may directly affect brand attitudes. The study’s findings coupled with the above issues suggest that much remains to be known about the role of managerially relevant advertising strategy and decision variables on brand attitude formation processes and the role of negative feelings responses as elements of these processes. References Aaker David A, Norris Donald. 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