VoL34,No.2,Pp.141-147.2006 Biotechnology Education The Development of Biotechnology Education in China* Received for publication,June 6,2005,and in revised form,November 17,2005 Xuanwei Zhout,Juan LinS,Lei ZhangS,Zhonghai Chens,Yizhou YinS,Binhui Guot,Xiaofen Suns, and Kexuan TangtS] From the tPlant Biotechnology Research Center,School of Agriculture and Biology,Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center,Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Shanghai 200030 and the SState Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering,School of Life Sciences,Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center,Fudan University,Shanghai 200433,China From the middle of the 20th century,Chinese scientists have been actively involved in biotechnology. However,biotechnology education in China is a relatively recent phenomenon.This subject has not been addressed at the undergraduate level in a serious way until recently.In the last decade,biotechnology education developed rapidly and reached a new level in Chinese universities.The Chinese scientific establishment is very much aware of the importance of biotechnology and has identified this subject as one of the priority areas.Some universities are taking positive steps toward enhancing biotechnology educa- tion.This article focuses on the emergence,as well as the problems and prospects,of biotechnology education in China. Keywords:Biotechnology education,biotechnology industry,China,development,emergence. As in other developing countries,biotechnology educa- impetus by the growth of these related industries. tion in China is a relatively recent phenomenon [1].The The Background and Situation of Biotechnology Indus- practice of biotechnology in China for many years has tries in China-In the 1980s,the tide of the new technology been limited to research activities at universities and insti- revolution,which mainly contains information technology, tutes,and only in 1993 was the first undergraduate bio- biotechnology,and new material technology,made tre- technology program initiated.With the recognition of the mendous impacts on science and technology in the world. Chinese government,biotechnology is now a priority area so developing high technology has been one of the main and receiving greater attention than ever before.Currently, focuses in state development strategy by many countries. there are several biotechnology-based industries in China. How China,as a large developing country,can keep Growths of these industries are creating an increasing abreast of the new situation of rapid development of high demand for a workforce with relevant skills.Universities technologies in the world,pursue the world's advanced therefore have a responsibility to tailor graduates that can level,and narrow the gap between China and foreign meet these demands.This article summarizes the situation countries has become the focal point attracting the atten- and development of biotechnology education at different tion of scientists as well as the Party Central Committee levels in China. and the State Council.In March 1986,in view of the BIOTECHNOLOGY IN UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION impacts of competition in the fields of advanced technol- ogies in the world,four leading scientists submitted a letter The undergraduate science and engineering depart- ments in China offer 4-year degree programs.From its to the central government,suggesting that China should emergence to the present,biotechnology education has adopt appropriate strategies to pursue the development of been concerned with many areas,such as agriculture [2], advanced technologies in the world.This letter received biology,environment [3],and medicine and pharmaceutics great attention from the Party Central Committee and the [4].The development of biotechnology education is given State Council.Since then,the level of research on ad- vanced technologies has moved to a new stage in China. Because the letter of the scientists and the written instruc- .This research was supported by the China National Science tions were both put forward in March 1986,the program and Technology Publication Fund,Shanghai Science and Tech- nology Publication Fund,China National 863 High Tech Program, was given the name of "863."This program aims to keep and China Ministry of Education. pursuing the most advanced science and technology lev- 1 To whom correspondence should be addressed:Plant Bio- els of biotechnology,space technology,information tech- technology Research Center,School of Agriculture and Biology, nology,laser technology,automation technology,energy Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Shanghai 200030.Tel.:86-21- technology,and new material technology all over the world 62932002;Fax:86-21-62824073;E-mail:kxtang1@yahoo.com or 5.From then on,many research funds and related cor- kxtang@sjtu.edu.cn. porations in China have been used to support the research This paper is available on line at http://www.bambed.org 141
Biotechnology Education The Development of Biotechnology Education in China* Received for publication, June 6, 2005, and in revised form, November 17, 2005 Xuanwei Zhou‡, Juan Lin§, Lei Zhang§, Zhonghai Chen§, Yizhou Yin§, Binhui Guo‡, Xiaofen Sun§, and Kexuan Tang‡§¶ From the ‡Plant Biotechnology Research Center, School of Agriculture and Biology, Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030 and the §State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China From the middle of the 20th century, Chinese scientists have been actively involved in biotechnology. However, biotechnology education in China is a relatively recent phenomenon. This subject has not been addressed at the undergraduate level in a serious way until recently. In the last decade, biotechnology education developed rapidly and reached a new level in Chinese universities. The Chinese scientific establishment is very much aware of the importance of biotechnology and has identified this subject as one of the priority areas. Some universities are taking positive steps toward enhancing biotechnology education. This article focuses on the emergence, as well as the problems and prospects, of biotechnology education in China. Keywords: Biotechnology education, biotechnology industry, China, development, emergence. As in other developing countries, biotechnology education in China is a relatively recent phenomenon [1]. The practice of biotechnology in China for many years has been limited to research activities at universities and institutes, and only in 1993 was the first undergraduate biotechnology program initiated. With the recognition of the Chinese government, biotechnology is now a priority area and receiving greater attention than ever before. Currently, there are several biotechnology-based industries in China. Growths of these industries are creating an increasing demand for a workforce with relevant skills. Universities therefore have a responsibility to tailor graduates that can meet these demands. This article summarizes the situation and development of biotechnology education at different levels in China. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION The undergraduate science and engineering departments in China offer 4-year degree programs. From its emergence to the present, biotechnology education has been concerned with many areas, such as agriculture [2], biology, environment [3], and medicine and pharmaceutics [4]. The development of biotechnology education is given impetus by the growth of these related industries. The Background and Situation of Biotechnology Industries in China—In the 1980s, the tide of the new technology revolution, which mainly contains information technology, biotechnology, and new material technology, made tremendous impacts on science and technology in the world, so developing high technology has been one of the main focuses in state development strategy by many countries. How China, as a large developing country, can keep abreast of the new situation of rapid development of high technologies in the world, pursue the world’s advanced level, and narrow the gap between China and foreign countries has become the focal point attracting the attention of scientists as well as the Party Central Committee and the State Council. In March 1986, in view of the impacts of competition in the fields of advanced technologies in the world, four leading scientists submitted a letter to the central government, suggesting that China should adopt appropriate strategies to pursue the development of advanced technologies in the world. This letter received great attention from the Party Central Committee and the State Council. Since then, the level of research on advanced technologies has moved to a new stage in China. Because the letter of the scientists and the written instructions were both put forward in March 1986, the program was given the name of “863.” This program aims to keep pursuing the most advanced science and technology levels of biotechnology, space technology, information technology, laser technology, automation technology, energy technology, and new material technology all over the world [5]. From then on, many research funds and related corporations in China have been used to support the research * This research was supported by the China National Science and Technology Publication Fund, Shanghai Science and Technology Publication Fund, China National 863 High Tech Program, and China Ministry of Education. ¶ To whom correspondence should be addressed: Plant Biotechnology Research Center, School of Agriculture and Biology, Fudan-SJTU-Nottingham Plant Biotechnology R&D Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030. Tel.: 86-21- 62932002; Fax: 86-21-62824073; E-mail: kxtang1@yahoo.com or kxtang@sjtu.edu.cn. © 2006 by The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EDUCATION Printed in U.S.A. Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 141–147, 2006 This paper is available on line at http://www.bambed.org 141
142 BAMBED,Vol.34,No.2,pp.141-147,2006 TABLE I Specialized core course of biotechnology degree programs in Shanghai Jiao Tong University(51 credits) Course type Course name Course code Crs. Hours Hours/week Term Required course (38 Crs.) Physical Chemistry F1112044 72 Physical Chemistry Exp. F1115052 3 Biochemistry F0811033 5 Biochemistry F0811043 3 3 545 Biochemistry Exp. F0815017 2.5 Biochemistry Exp. F0815027 2.5 4 2 Microbiology F0812067 2.5 . Microbiological Experiment F0815067 2.5 4 . 45556 Cellular Biology F0812323 Cellular Biology Exp F0815322 Molecular Biology F0812333 23 23 Molecular Biology Lab. F0815332 2 36 655 Genetics F0812343 3 General Biology F0812353 3 Elective course (13 Crs.) Advances in Life Science F080Z312 2 45436 621 Application of Computer in Life Science F081Z322 2 18+18 Application of Computer in Life Science F081Z332 18+18 2 Biological Products and Techniques F081Z432 2 Fundamental Biochemical Engineering F081Z337 .5 2.5 Fundamental Biochemical Reaction Engineering F081Z347 2.5 4 2.5 Fundamental Biochem.Eng.Exp. F081Z351 18 Fundamental Biochemical Reaction Eng.Exp F081Z366 15 1.5 67656567 Immunology F081Z372 % 2 Circuits and Electronics F0442013 3 54 3 6 Circuits and Electronics Exp. F0445012 2 36 2 6 on biotechnology.Meanwhile,the China National Devel- in the same year [9].In 1997,the Ministry of Education in opment and Reform Commission and National Science China formally approved building a biotechnology degree and Technology Commission helped to found a series of program in higher educational institutions.There were national key laboratories in biotechnology areas.The more than 70 biotechnology and 20 bioengineering degree country and those corporations paid more and more at- programs with nearly 10,000 undergraduates enrolled in tention to biotechnology,through which Chinese biotech- China by 2002 [10].According to their own needs,most of nology research and industry have progressed rapidly. the comprehensive universities,agricultural academies, China has focused on developing biotechnology products medicinal academies,teachers colleges,and normal uni- in the following areas:(i)biotechnology products of agri- versities have established biotechnology degree programs culture,forestry,livestock husbandry,and fishery;(ii)bio- to meet the growing demands of the related professionals technology products of medicine and hygiene;(ii)biotech- with the development of life science.In 1998,the Ministry nology products of light industry such as food making;(iv) of Education of China issued a Specialty Program and biotechnology products of other areas,including new bio- Introduction of Undergraduate Course for Regular Institu- chemical products,environment-improving technology tion of Higher Learning,which standardized the training and products,and so on [6].There are over 500 corpora- objectives,main subjects,and educational system for bio- tions related to modern biotechnology all over China,over 300 for medicine and the rest for agriculture.Gross sales technology degree programs.Qualified students would be on biotechnology products increased from RMB 260 mil- conferred a degree of Bachelor of Science. lion(about 32.46 million U.S.dollars)in year 1986 to RMB The training objectives of the biotechnology degree pro- 20 billion (about 2.5 billion U.S.dollars)by the end of the gram issued by the Ministry of Education [11]require that year 2000 in China,a 76-fold increase in only 15 years [7]. students should master basic theories of life science and By June of 2000.there were over 120 listed companies relatively systematically explore the theories,knowledge, related to biotechnology in China [8].Modern biotechnol- and skills of biotechnology.This enables the students to ogy is gradually becoming one of the most active and serve in the vocations of medicine,food industry,agricul- fastest developing industries in China. ture,forestry,animal husbandry,fishery,environmental Enforcement and Development of Biotechnology Edu- protection,and gardening,etc.The course establishment cation in Higher Educational Institutions-Before 1993,no of this program,which should mainly include microbiology, undergraduate degree programs entitled Biotechnology cell biology,genetics,biochemistry,molecular biology, existed in China.However,the number of universities in and biotechnology,is comprised of four divisions:Genetic China that offer biotechnology as a component of other Engineering,Cell Engineering,Fermentation Engineering, degree programs is increasing.In 1993,among compre- Enzyme,and Protein Engineering [12].Moreover,accord- hensive universities all over the China,Peking University ing to the training objectives,actual teaching staff,exper- first established a biotechnology degree program and de- imental teaching conditions,and other factors,various veloped a Biology Department for the Life Science College types of institutions set up their own biotechnology degree program with unique characteristics.For example,for the 1 The abbreviations used are:RMB,renminbi;Crs,credits; biotechnology degree programs of Shanghai Jiao Tong NSFC,Natural Science Foundation of China. University,a comprehensive university,the total arrange-
on biotechnology. Meanwhile, the China National Development and Reform Commission and National Science and Technology Commission helped to found a series of national key laboratories in biotechnology areas. The country and those corporations paid more and more attention to biotechnology, through which Chinese biotechnology research and industry have progressed rapidly. China has focused on developing biotechnology products in the following areas: (i) biotechnology products of agriculture, forestry, livestock husbandry, and fishery; (ii) biotechnology products of medicine and hygiene; (iii) biotechnology products of light industry such as food making; (iv) biotechnology products of other areas, including new biochemical products, environment-improving technology and products, and so on [6]. There are over 500 corporations related to modern biotechnology all over China, over 300 for medicine and the rest for agriculture. Gross sales on biotechnology products increased from RMB1 260 million (about 32.46 million U. S. dollars) in year 1986 to RMB 20 billion (about 2.5 billion U. S. dollars) by the end of the year 2000 in China, a 76-fold increase in only 15 years [7]. By June of 2000, there were over 120 listed companies related to biotechnology in China [8]. Modern biotechnology is gradually becoming one of the most active and fastest developing industries in China. Enforcement and Development of Biotechnology Education in Higher Educational Institutions—Before 1993, no undergraduate degree programs entitled Biotechnology existed in China. However, the number of universities in China that offer biotechnology as a component of other degree programs is increasing. In 1993, among comprehensive universities all over the China, Peking University first established a biotechnology degree program and developed a Biology Department for the Life Science College in the same year [9]. In 1997, the Ministry of Education in China formally approved building a biotechnology degree program in higher educational institutions. There were more than 70 biotechnology and 20 bioengineering degree programs with nearly 10,000 undergraduates enrolled in China by 2002 [10]. According to their own needs, most of the comprehensive universities, agricultural academies, medicinal academies, teachers colleges, and normal universities have established biotechnology degree programs to meet the growing demands of the related professionals with the development of life science. In 1998, the Ministry of Education of China issued a Specialty Program and Introduction of Undergraduate Course for Regular Institution of Higher Learning, which standardized the training objectives, main subjects, and educational system for biotechnology degree programs. Qualified students would be conferred a degree of Bachelor of Science. The training objectives of the biotechnology degree program issued by the Ministry of Education [11] require that students should master basic theories of life science and relatively systematically explore the theories, knowledge, and skills of biotechnology. This enables the students to serve in the vocations of medicine, food industry, agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishery, environmental protection, and gardening, etc. The course establishment of this program, which should mainly include microbiology, cell biology, genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, and biotechnology, is comprised of four divisions: Genetic Engineering, Cell Engineering, Fermentation Engineering, Enzyme, and Protein Engineering [12]. Moreover, according to the training objectives, actual teaching staff, experimental teaching conditions, and other factors, various types of institutions set up their own biotechnology degree program with unique characteristics. For example, for the biotechnology degree programs of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, a comprehensive university, the total arrange- 1 The abbreviations used are: RMB, renminbi; Crs, credits; NSFC, Natural Science Foundation of China. TABLE I Specialized core course of biotechnology degree programs in Shanghai Jiao Tong University (51 credits) Course type Course name Course code Crs. Hours Hours/week Term Required course (38 Crs.) Physical Chemistry F1112044 4 72 4 4 Physical Chemistry Exp. F1115052 4 36 2 5 Biochemistry F0811033 3 54 3 4 Biochemistry F0811043 3 54 3 5 Biochemistry Exp. F0815017 2.5 45 2.5 4 Biochemistry Exp. F0815027 2.5 45 2.5 5 Microbiology F0812067 2.5 45 2.5 5 Microbiological Experiment F0815067 2.5 45 2.5 5 Cellular Biology F0812323 3 54 3 6 Cellular Biology Exp. F0815322 2 36 2 6 Molecular Biology F0812333 3 54 3 5 Molecular Biology Lab. F0815332 2 36 2 5 Genetics F0812343 3 54 3 6 General Biology F0812353 3 54 3 2 Elective course (13 Crs.) Advances in Life Science F080Z312 2 36 2 1 Application of Computer in Life Science F081Z322 2 18 18 2 6 Application of Computer in Life Science F081Z332 2 18 18 2 7 Biological Products and Techniques F081Z432 2 36 2 6 Fundamental Biochemical Engineering F081Z337 2.5 45 2.5 5 Fundamental Biochemical Reaction Engineering F081Z347 2.5 45 2.5 6 Fundamental Biochem. Eng. Exp. F081Z351 1 18 1 5 Fundamental Biochemical Reaction Eng. Exp. F081Z366 1.5 27 1.5 6 Immunology F081Z372 2 36 2 7 Circuits and Electronics F0442013 3 54 3 6 Circuits and Electronics Exp. F0445012 2 36 2 6 142 BAMBED, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 141–147, 2006
143 TABLE II Lectures on frontiers of the discipline and unique feature course of biotechnology degree programs at Shanghai Jiao Tong University(14 Crs.) Course type Course name Course code Crs. Hours Hours/week Term Required course(8 Crs.) Biology on Development F0813312 2 36 2 > Fundamentals of Genetic Engineering F0813322 2 36 2 7 Bioinformatics F0813332 36 2 Genetics Lab. F0815342 2 36 6 Elective course (6 Crs.) Enzymatic Engineering F0832036 1.5 27 1.5 Cellular Engineering F081Z406 1.5 27 1.5 Biochemical Separation Engineering F081Z462 2 36 2 67 Ecological Engineering F081Z472 2 36 2 Life Science Documents Retrieval F081Z412 2 12 2 1 Frontier Lectures in Life Science F081Z422 36 2 Practice training Military Training F5536304 4 2 weeks 2 weeks Industrial Practice F4105303 54 54 23 Acquaintanceship Practice F0835986 1.5 1 weeks 1 week 4 Internship F0835979 4.5 3 weeks 3 weeks 6 Undergraduate Project (Thesis) F0835995 24 24 weeks 8 weeks 16 weeks 8 ment of credit hours is as follows:151+[12],151 credit according to the training project of the biotechnology de- hours of lessons and 12 credit hours after school.The gree program at Fudan University (for biomedicine),grad- course structure of the biotechnology degree programs uating students are required to accomplish 150 credits. includes four course modules:(i)Common Learning,65+ which includes a general Course for 44 Crs.,a basic art 6 credits;(ii)Humanities,Social Studies and Economic and science course for 28 Crs..a specialized core course Management,21 +6 credits;(iii)specialized core course, for 78 Crs.containing industrial practice for 4 Crs.,and an 51 credits,distributed as seen in Table I;(iv)Lectures on undergraduate project or thesis for 6 Crs.Table Ill shows Frontiers of the Discipline and Unique Features,14 credits. the particular arrangement of specialized core courses and distributed as shown in Table ll [13]. elective courses of the biotechnology degree program at In comprehensive universities,basic courses such as Fudan University [14]. Physics,Mathematics,Organic Chemistry,Inorganic In addition to experimental laboratory courses in the Chemistry,and Analytical Chemistry account for the bulk teaching plan,many universities arrange multiple activities of required courses.Furthermore,the proportion of com- to assure the development of experimental skills,such as puter and English courses is increased.According to their Curriculum Design,Production Practice,and Graduation own situations,different institutes choose one or two parts Paper Design (Tables ll and Ill).Furthermore,colleges or of four divisions of biotechnology as their required universities also offer a specialty course,namely Scientific courses,and the other parts are regarded as elective Research Practice,to excellent students who can directly courses (Table Ill).Elective courses designed to enrich the participate in specific scientific research projects and work students'education include categories such as Pharma- under the individual instruction of professors and senior ceutical Molecular Design and Pharmaceutical Molecular tutors,which creates the best conditions for the improve- Biology,related to medicine;Plant Tissue Culture,Plant ment and development of the skills. Molecular Biology,Plant Physiology,and Preservation and Processing Technology of Fruits and Vegetables,related BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GRADUATE EDUCATION to agriculture and biology;Ecology,Environment and Ec- Although it started in the 1930s in some Chinese univer- ological Engineering,Environment and Hygiene,and Mi- sities,the graduate education of life science began,in a crobiology,related to the environment.The main curricu- large scale,with the foundation of the master degree sys- lum in comprehensive universities requires that on the one tem in 1954 in new China (after 1949).Before 1981,there hand,the required courses lay a solid foundation for var- was only master degree education in China.Since then, ious development and requirements,and that on the other China began to offer the doctoral degree [15,16].The first hand,the extensive elective courses build an individual's batch of students (18 students)received their doctoral specialty.Thus,the undergraduates in these universities degrees in 1983 in China.By the end of the year 2003 will be tailored to possess firm academic knowledge, 91,000 students had earned doctoral degrees [17].How- skills,and broad adaptability.Generally,bioengineering ever,before 1997,graduate students studying biotechnol- degree programs are established in colleges or universities ogy were awarded degrees in life sciences because before strong in technology and applied research;graduating stu- that time,there was no graduate major called Biotechnol- dents receive the degree of Bachelor of Engineering.The ogy.At the end of the 20th century,many colleges and basic courses in the curriculum are similar to those in the universities founded biotechnology degree programs,but biotechnology degree programs with the differences found there were many differences in program names,purposes, in specialized courses in engineering such as Engineering and curricula because of their different features and char- Cartography,The Principle of Chemical Engineering,Bio- acteristics,locations,and financial situations.For in- reactor Engineering Principles,Biochemical Separation stance,the appellations include the programs of Biotech- Engineering,Biochemical Equipment,and Test and Con- nology,Food Biotechnology,Plant Biotechnology,Marine trol of Biochemical Engineering Parameters.For example, Biotechnology,and Biotechnological Pharmaceutics and
ment of credit hours is as follows: 151 [12], 151 credit hours of lessons and 12 credit hours after school. The course structure of the biotechnology degree programs includes four course modules: (i) Common Learning, 65 6 credits; (ii) Humanities, Social Studies and Economic Management, 21 6 credits; (iii) specialized core course, 51 credits, distributed as seen in Table I; (iv) Lectures on Frontiers of the Discipline and Unique Features, 14 credits, distributed as shown in Table II [13]. In comprehensive universities, basic courses such as Physics, Mathematics, Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, and Analytical Chemistry account for the bulk of required courses. Furthermore, the proportion of computer and English courses is increased. According to their own situations, different institutes choose one or two parts of four divisions of biotechnology as their required courses, and the other parts are regarded as elective courses (Table III). Elective courses designed to enrich the students’ education include categories such as Pharmaceutical Molecular Design and Pharmaceutical Molecular Biology, related to medicine; Plant Tissue Culture, Plant Molecular Biology, Plant Physiology, and Preservation and Processing Technology of Fruits and Vegetables, related to agriculture and biology; Ecology, Environment and Ecological Engineering, Environment and Hygiene, and Microbiology, related to the environment. The main curriculum in comprehensive universities requires that on the one hand, the required courses lay a solid foundation for various development and requirements, and that on the other hand, the extensive elective courses build an individual’s specialty. Thus, the undergraduates in these universities will be tailored to possess firm academic knowledge, skills, and broad adaptability. Generally, bioengineering degree programs are established in colleges or universities strong in technology and applied research; graduating students receive the degree of Bachelor of Engineering. The basic courses in the curriculum are similar to those in the biotechnology degree programs with the differences found in specialized courses in engineering such as Engineering Cartography, The Principle of Chemical Engineering, Bioreactor Engineering Principles, Biochemical Separation Engineering, Biochemical Equipment, and Test and Control of Biochemical Engineering Parameters. For example, according to the training project of the biotechnology degree program at Fudan University (for biomedicine), graduating students are required to accomplish 150 credits, which includes a general Course for 44 Crs., a basic art and science course for 28 Crs., a specialized core course for 78 Crs. containing industrial practice for 4 Crs., and an undergraduate project or thesis for 6 Crs. Table III shows the particular arrangement of specialized core courses and elective courses of the biotechnology degree program at Fudan University [14]. In addition to experimental laboratory courses in the teaching plan, many universities arrange multiple activities to assure the development of experimental skills, such as Curriculum Design, Production Practice, and Graduation Paper Design (Tables II and III). Furthermore, colleges or universities also offer a specialty course, namely Scientific Research Practice, to excellent students who can directly participate in specific scientific research projects and work under the individual instruction of professors and senior tutors, which creates the best conditions for the improvement and development of the skills. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GRADUATE EDUCATION Although it started in the 1930s in some Chinese universities, the graduate education of life science began, in a large scale, with the foundation of the master degree system in 1954 in new China (after 1949). Before 1981, there was only master degree education in China. Since then, China began to offer the doctoral degree [15, 16]. The first batch of students (18 students) received their doctoral degrees in 1983 in China. By the end of the year 2003, 91,000 students had earned doctoral degrees [17]. However, before 1997, graduate students studying biotechnology were awarded degrees in life sciences because before that time, there was no graduate major called Biotechnology. At the end of the 20th century, many colleges and universities founded biotechnology degree programs, but there were many differences in program names, purposes, and curricula because of their different features and characteristics, locations, and financial situations. For instance, the appellations include the programs of Biotechnology, Food Biotechnology, Plant Biotechnology, Marine Biotechnology, and Biotechnological Pharmaceutics and TABLE II Lectures on frontiers of the discipline and unique feature course of biotechnology degree programs at Shanghai Jiao Tong University (14 Crs.) Course type Course name Course code Crs. Hours Hours/week Term Required course (8 Crs.) Biology on Development F0813312 2 36 2 7 Fundamentals of Genetic Engineering F0813322 2 36 2 7 Bioinformatics F0813332 2 36 2 6 Genetics Lab. F0815342 2 36 2 6 Elective course (6 Crs.) Enzymatic Engineering F0832036 1.5 27 1.5 6 Cellular Engineering F081Z406 1.5 27 1.5 6 Biochemical Separation Engineering F081Z462 2 36 2 7 Ecological Engineering F081Z472 2 36 2 7 Life Science Documents Retrieval F081Z412 2 12 2 7 Frontier Lectures in Life Science F081Z422 2 36 2 7 Practice training Military Training F5536304 4 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 Industrial Practice F4105303 3 54 54 3 Acquaintanceship Practice F0835986 1.5 1 weeks 1 week 4 Internship F0835979 4.5 3 weeks 3 weeks 6 Undergraduate Project (Thesis) F0835995 24 24 weeks 8 weeks 7 16 weeks 8 143
144 BAMBED,Vol.34,No.2,pp.141-147,2006 TABLE Ill Specialized core course of biotechnology degree programs at Fudan University(78 credits) Course type Course name Course code Crs.Hours/week Term Required course(58 Crs.) Analytical Chemistry CHEM130001 2 Inorganic Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry Exp CHEM130003 v 3 Organic Chemistry CHEM130049 Organic Chemistry Exp. CHEM130050 2 3 Basic Experiment of Modern Biology B1OL130019 2 3 Biochemistry A(Part I) BI○L130005 3 Biochemistry Exp.A(Part I) B10L130020 .5 3 Microbiology BIOL130010 3 3 33333455 Microbiology Experiment B1OL130011 1.5 3 Physical Chemistry PHAR130072 Physical Chemistry PHAR130072 Biochemistry Exp.A(Part ll) BIOL130021 15 3 445 Cell Biology BIOL130008 4 Cell Biology Exp B1OL130009 15 3 Genetics B1OL130012 3 Genetics Exp. B10L130013 1.5 Basic of Medicine PHAR130005 2 2 4555 Introduction of Pharmacology PHAR130113 2.5 Introduction of Pharmaceutical Chemistry PHAR130114 2 Introduction of Pharmacy PHAR130115 2 Drug Design PHAR130011 1 Biopharmacy and Pharmacokinetics BIOL130022 2 Industrial Practice B1OL130023 Undergraduate Project (Thesis) B1OL130018 Elective course(20 Crs.) Introduction of Nuclear Pharmacy PHAR130009 2 2 Medicinal Management PHAR130019 2 56677786776 Searching of Pharmacy Literature PHAR130023 22 Bio pharmaceutical Technologies PHAR130008 Natural Medical Chemistry I PHAR130016 2 2 Pharmacological Economy PHAR130059 1 Medicinal Marketing PHAR130066 1 6777 Medical Ethics PHAR130067 1 Exclusive Law of Drugs PHAR130068 1 1 Research and Development of Drugs and Marketing Management PHAR130069 2 Pharmaceutical Enterprise Management PHAR130071 1 7776 Bio-pharmacology PHAR130116 2 2 Medicament and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry Exp. PHAR130117 1 Pharmaceutical Botany PHAR130118 2 2 Advanced Pharmacology PHAR130119 Pharmaceutical Analysis PHAR130120 32 677 Biosynthetic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry PHAR130121 2. + 1 7 Biopharmaceutical Technology and Equipment PHAR130122 3 3 6 Instrumental Analysis PHAR130123 1.5 +1 Biostatistics B10L130024 3 3 66 Immunology B1OL130026 Virology B1OL130031 2 7 Protein and Protein Engineering BIOL130033 2 Nucleic acid Chemistry and Biology B10L130035 3 Biopharmaceutical B1OL130036 2 2 666 Genomics B1OL130037 2 2 Gene Expression Strategy B10L130044 Genetic Engineering BIOL130060 2 2 Modem Drug and Drug Delivery System BIOL130061 Introduction and Application of Biotechnology B1OL130049 2 Molecular Genetics in Medicine B1OL130029 Natural Products Chemistry B10L130030 22 77767777 Proteomics BIOL130055 2 Behavior Ecology BIOL130059 2 2 Marketing Management MANA130006 3 3 6 so on.Biotechnology is seldom used as a direct name in dissertation.The first stage is arranged in the first aca- the curriculum design,but its detailed contents are in- demic year.During this stage,students usually choose serted into other courses. suitable courses under the instruction of mentors;gradu- As for the specific training process,generally,graduate ate students acquiring a masters degree can choose students require 3 years each to acquire a masters degree courses for the purpose of knowledge enlargement and or a doctoral degree from a masters degree,whereas base consolidation,whereas doctorate students will getting a doctoral degree directly from an undergraduate choose courses according to their research area,their degree requires 5 years.The whole education contains background,and the demand for learning innovative tech- four basic stages:course work,literature searching refer- nologies.According to their own research fields,graduate ence,selection of a research topic,and completion of the students must read and summarize the relevant scientific
so on. Biotechnology is seldom used as a direct name in the curriculum design, but its detailed contents are inserted into other courses. As for the specific training process, generally, graduate students require 3 years each to acquire a masters degree or a doctoral degree from a masters degree, whereas getting a doctoral degree directly from an undergraduate degree requires 5 years. The whole education contains four basic stages: course work, literature searching reference, selection of a research topic, and completion of the dissertation. The first stage is arranged in the first academic year. During this stage, students usually choose suitable courses under the instruction of mentors; graduate students acquiring a masters degree can choose courses for the purpose of knowledge enlargement and base consolidation, whereas doctorate students will choose courses according to their research area, their background, and the demand for learning innovative technologies. According to their own research fields, graduate students must read and summarize the relevant scientific TABLE III Specialized core course of biotechnology degree programs at Fudan University (78 credits) Course type Course name Course code Crs. Hours/week Term Required course (58 Crs.) Analytical Chemistry CHEM130001 2 2 3 Inorganic Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry Exp. CHEM130003 2 3 3 Organic Chemistry CHEM130049 4 4 3 Organic Chemistry Exp. CHEM130050 2 3 3 Basic Experiment of Modern Biology BIOL130019 2 3 3 Biochemistry A (Part I) BIOL130005 3 3 3 Biochemistry Exp. A (Part I) BIOL130020 1.5 3 4 Microbiology BIOL130010 3 3 5 Microbiology Experiment BIOL130011 1.5 3 5 Physical Chemistry PHAR130072 2 2 4 Physical Chemistry PHAR130072 2 2 4 Biochemistry Exp. A (Part II) BIOL130021 1.5 3 5 Cell Biology BIOL130008 3 3 4 Cell Biology Exp. BIOL130009 1.5 3 4 Genetics BIOL130012 3 3 5 Genetics Exp. BIOL130013 1.5 3 5 Basic of Medicine PHAR130005 2 2 5 Introduction of Pharmacology PHAR130113 2.5 2 1 5 Introduction of Pharmaceutical Chemistry PHAR130114 2 2 6 Introduction of Pharmacy PHAR130115 2 2 6 Drug Design PHAR130011 1 1 7 Biopharmacy and Pharmacokinetics BIOL130022 2 2 7 Industrial Practice BIOL130023 4 7 Undergraduate Project (Thesis) BIOL130018 6 8 Elective course (20 Crs.) Introduction of Nuclear Pharmacy PHAR130009 2 2 6 Medicinal Management PHAR130019 2 2 7 Searching of Pharmacy Literature PHAR130023 2 2 7 Bio pharmaceutical Technologies PHAR130008 2 2 6 Natural Medical Chemistry I PHAR130016 2 2 6 Pharmacological Economy PHAR130059 1 1 7 Medicinal Marketing PHAR130066 1 1 7 Medical Ethics PHAR130067 1 1 7 Exclusive Law of Drugs PHAR130068 1 1 7 Research and Development of Drugs and Marketing Management PHAR130069 2 2 7 Pharmaceutical Enterprise Management PHAR130071 1 1 7 Bio-pharmacology PHAR130116 2 2 6 Medicament and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry Exp. PHAR130117 1 2 6 Pharmaceutical Botany PHAR130118 2 2 6 Advanced Pharmacology PHAR130119 3 3 7 Pharmaceutical Analysis PHAR130120 2 2 7 Biosynthetic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry PHAR130121 3 2.5 1 7 Biopharmaceutical Technology and Equipment PHAR130122 3 3 6 Instrumental Analysis PHAR130123 2 1.5 1 6 Biostatistics BIOL130024 3 3 6 Immunology BIOL130026 2 2 6 Virology BIOL130031 2 2 7 Protein and Protein Engineering BIOL130033 2 2 6 Nucleic acid Chemistry and Biology BIOL130035 2 2 6 Biopharmaceutical BIOL130036 2 2 6 Genomics BIOL130037 2 2 7 Gene Expression Strategy BIOL130044 2 2 7 Genetic Engineering BIOL130060 2 2 7 Modern Drug and Drug Delivery System BIOL130061 3 3 6 Introduction and Application of Biotechnology BIOL130049 2 2 7 Molecular Genetics in Medicine BIOL130029 2 2 7 Natural Products Chemistry BIOL130030 2 2 7 Proteomics BIOL130055 2 2 7 Behavior Ecology BIOL130059 2 2 7 Marketing Management MANA130006 3 3 6 144 BAMBED, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 141–147, 2006
145 literature,which provides the basis for choosing a research lish innovative experimental units of personnel category topic.Generally speaking,graduate students choose their and structure,personnel training models,education man- research topics based on the following considerations:(i) agement systems,and operating mechanisms and to train topics supported by local or central government;(ii)topics professional biotechnology personnel of various kinds. supported by enterprises;(iil)topics with great prospects The training base has mainly followed three responsibili- determined by post-graduate students or mentors;(iv)top- ties.(i)Starting from the autumn semester of 2002,exper- ics with scientific cooperation of some domestic and in- iments will be gradually introduced into the universities ternational institutes with advanced research facilities. where the training base is located to set up life science subjects for non-life science majors.(ii)The training base BIOTECHNOLOGY-RELATED EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS will train teachers in life science for colleges and universi- Since being founded in June 1993,the Chinese Society ties.(iii)According to the national core teacher training of Biotechnology has established the bridge between en- plan,the training base will also train teachers of life sci- terprises and institutions in the Chinese biotechnology ence courses from western China in the advanced knowl- field.Since that time,societies of biotechnology of indi- edge in modern life sciences. vidual provinces were set up gradually.Currently,there are From the end of the 20th century to the early 21st five professional committees under the Chinese Society of century,Chinese national publishing companies have Biotechnology:Medicine Biotechnology,Agriculture Bio- translated and published a large number of textbooks and technology,Industry and Environment Biotechnology, monographs dealing with each field of biotechnology,in- Ocean Biotechnology,and Carbohydrates Technology. cluding plant biotechnology,animal biotechnology,medi- Each year,they organize programs at domestic and inter- cine biotechnology,and environment biotechnology.The national colleges and universities,research institutes,and China 863 Biology High Tech Series consists of 14 books related enterprises to discuss the education of China bio- with a total investment of 500,000 RMB (about 62421.97 technology students,develop strategies for science re- U.S.dollars),which have been compiled by dozens of search and industry development,and coordinate and solve national scientists who were called together by Science the issues that have occurred during the development. Press in China.The series has summarized the latest de- In recent years,Chinese biotechnology and industry velopment of the current life technology field and fore- have made significant progress.As the only member from casted the development of biotechnology.According to developing countries,China participated in the interna- incomplete statistics,56 types of biotechnology books tional Human Genome Project and accomplished 1%of were compiled and published by Science Press only from sequencing work [18];drafted the sequence of the rice 1998 to 2004,including 51 books about molecular biology, genome independently [19];positioned and cloned genes 24 books about genetics,41 books about general biology, that caused hereditary diseases such as neuropathic high 38 books about biochemistry,and 22 books about cell frequency deafness gene for the first time [20];and char- biology.Among numerous books marked by biotechnol- acterized p16,the core gene causing human cell aging ogy,the earliest and most widely used books were Intro- [21].Chinese scientists have sequenced rice chromosome duction to Biotechnology,which was compiled by Siyang number 4 and 60,000 rice genes as a participant in the Song and Shilin Louin [35]and published in 1999,and international rice genome project [22,23]. Modern Biotechnology Outline,which was compiled by In the agricultural biotechnology field,Chinese research- Lijia Qu,Hongya Gu,and Ping Hu [36].The former was ers played a leading role in the international establishment widely used in public courses in universities and was re- of two-line hybrid rice technology,which has been widely edited respectively in 2001 and 2004 [28].In addition, introduced and adopted throughout the country 24].In- Chemical Industry Press also published the Modern Bio- sect-resistant cotton research and application have technology Series,especially the China Biotechnology In- reached the world's most advanced level,enabling China dustry Development Report(2002,2003),which has re- to be the second country in the world that owns independ- flected the current basic development status of China ent intellectual property for breeding insect-resistant cot- biotechnology and given impetus to the development of ton [25].In the medical biotechnology field,Chinese re- biotechnology education [29,30]. searchers have developed more than 150 biomedicines that have been adopted in clinical research [26].China has FUNDING OF BIOTECHNOLOGY also successfully cloned animals such as sheep and cows Since the establishment of the 863 program in 1986. [27],placing China among the most advanced countries in biotechnology has been listed as a key project to be pursued animal biotechnology. in the science and technology area for three continuous In 1995,the Chinese government focused on investing Five-Year Plans (1986-2000)from the seventh Five-Year and developing 100 colleges and universities in China by Plan(1986-1990)to the ninth Five-Year Plan (1996-2000) the Chinese Key Projects (the so-called 211 Project)to (The first,second,third,forth,fifth,and sixth Five-Year meet the needs of China for higher education and science Plans are from1953to1957,1958to1962,1966to1970, and technology in 21st century.The Senior Education 1971 to 1975,1976 to 1980,and 1981 to 1985,respec- Department of the Ministry of Education has set up a Life tively.)The Natural Science Foundation of China(NSFC) Science and Technology Personnel Training Base in 36 also supports important basic research in biotechnology. universities including Peking University,Tsinghua Univer- For example,in the life science department of the NSFC sity,Fudan University,Shanghai Jiao Tong University,and Committee,molecular mechanism and gene regulation in Beijing Normal University to conduct,reform,and estab- development,structure and function of genome in eu-
literature, which provides the basis for choosing a research topic. Generally speaking, graduate students choose their research topics based on the following considerations: (i) topics supported by local or central government; (ii) topics supported by enterprises; (iii) topics with great prospects determined by post-graduate students or mentors; (iv) topics with scientific cooperation of some domestic and international institutes with advanced research facilities. BIOTECHNOLOGY-RELATED EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS Since being founded in June 1993, the Chinese Society of Biotechnology has established the bridge between enterprises and institutions in the Chinese biotechnology field. Since that time, societies of biotechnology of individual provinces were set up gradually. Currently, there are five professional committees under the Chinese Society of Biotechnology: Medicine Biotechnology, Agriculture Biotechnology, Industry and Environment Biotechnology, Ocean Biotechnology, and Carbohydrates Technology. Each year, they organize programs at domestic and international colleges and universities, research institutes, and related enterprises to discuss the education of China biotechnology students, develop strategies for science research and industry development, and coordinate and solve the issues that have occurred during the development. In recent years, Chinese biotechnology and industry have made significant progress. As the only member from developing countries, China participated in the international Human Genome Project and accomplished 1% of sequencing work [18]; drafted the sequence of the rice genome independently [19]; positioned and cloned genes that caused hereditary diseases such as neuropathic high frequency deafness gene for the first time [20]; and characterized p16, the core gene causing human cell aging [21]. Chinese scientists have sequenced rice chromosome number 4 and 60,000 rice genes as a participant in the international rice genome project [22, 23]. In the agricultural biotechnology field, Chinese researchers played a leading role in the international establishment of two-line hybrid rice technology, which has been widely introduced and adopted throughout the country [24]. Insect-resistant cotton research and application have reached the world’s most advanced level, enabling China to be the second country in the world that owns independent intellectual property for breeding insect-resistant cotton [25]. In the medical biotechnology field, Chinese researchers have developed more than 150 biomedicines that have been adopted in clinical research [26]. China has also successfully cloned animals such as sheep and cows [27], placing China among the most advanced countries in animal biotechnology. In 1995, the Chinese government focused on investing and developing 100 colleges and universities in China by the Chinese Key Projects (the so-called 211 Project) to meet the needs of China for higher education and science and technology in 21st century. The Senior Education Department of the Ministry of Education has set up a Life Science and Technology Personnel Training Base in 36 universities including Peking University, Tsinghua University, Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Beijing Normal University to conduct, reform, and establish innovative experimental units of personnel category and structure, personnel training models, education management systems, and operating mechanisms and to train professional biotechnology personnel of various kinds. The training base has mainly followed three responsibilities. (i) Starting from the autumn semester of 2002, experiments will be gradually introduced into the universities where the training base is located to set up life science subjects for non-life science majors. (ii) The training base will train teachers in life science for colleges and universities. (iii) According to the national core teacher training plan, the training base will also train teachers of life science courses from western China in the advanced knowledge in modern life sciences. From the end of the 20th century to the early 21st century, Chinese national publishing companies have translated and published a large number of textbooks and monographs dealing with each field of biotechnology, including plant biotechnology, animal biotechnology, medicine biotechnology, and environment biotechnology. The China 863 Biology High Tech Series consists of 14 books with a total investment of 500,000 RMB (about 62421.97 U. S. dollars), which have been compiled by dozens of national scientists who were called together by Science Press in China. The series has summarized the latest development of the current life technology field and forecasted the development of biotechnology. According to incomplete statistics, 56 types of biotechnology books were compiled and published by Science Press only from 1998 to 2004, including 51 books about molecular biology, 24 books about genetics, 41 books about general biology, 38 books about biochemistry, and 22 books about cell biology. Among numerous books marked by biotechnology, the earliest and most widely used books were Introduction to Biotechnology, which was compiled by Siyang Song and Shilin Louin [35] and published in 1999, and Modern Biotechnology Outline, which was compiled by Lijia Qu, Hongya Gu, and Ping Hu [36]. The former was widely used in public courses in universities and was reedited respectively in 2001 and 2004 [28]. In addition, Chemical Industry Press also published the Modern Biotechnology Series, especially the China Biotechnology Industry Development Report (2002, 2003), which has reflected the current basic development status of China biotechnology and given impetus to the development of biotechnology education [29, 30]. FUNDING OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Since the establishment of the 863 program in 1986, biotechnology has been listed as a key project to be pursued in the science and technology area for three continuous Five-Year Plans (1986 –2000) from the seventh Five-Year Plan (1986 –1990) to the ninth Five-Year Plan (1996 –2000). (The first, second, third, forth, fifth, and sixth Five-Year Plans are from 1953 to 1957, 1958 to 1962, 1966 to 1970, 1971 to 1975, 1976 to 1980, and 1981 to 1985, respectively.) The Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) also supports important basic research in biotechnology. For example, in the life science department of the NSFC Committee, molecular mechanism and gene regulation in development, structure and function of genome in eu- 145
146 BAMBED,Vol.34,No.2,pp.141-147,2006 TABLE IV Chinese doctoral and master's degree authorized institutions and authorized subjects allocation statistics(till Dec.2002)[33] Doctoral degree Doctoral degree Master's degree Master's degree District authorized institutions authorized subjects authorized institutions authorized subjects Quantity Percentage(%) Points Percentage (% Quantity Percentage(%) Points Percentage (% Eastem 199 63.78 951 61.67 415 57.16 4848 50.02 Middle 59 18.91 340 22.05 148 20.39 2602 26.84 Western 54 17.31 251 16.28 163 22.45 2243 23.14 Total 312 100.00 1542 100.00 726 100.00 9693 100.00 aThe eastem part of China includes Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Shandong,Guangdong,Fujian,Shanghai,and so on.The westem part of China includes Guangxi,Inner Mongolia,Tibet,Sinkiang,Qinghai,Gansu,Ningxia,Shaanxi,Guizhou,Yunnan,Sichuan,and Chongging.The middle part of China includes Shanxi,Henan,Anhui,Jiangxi,Hubei,Hunan,and so on. karyote,fundamental research on major disease and in- nology requires not only technical staff but also manage- sect occurrence and development,rule,and control of ment personnel.Each year,the need for research staffs is economic animals and plants,studies on formation mech- comparatively more than the need for management per- anism and genetics of important character in animal and sonnel.The innovation of science and technology requires plant,and studies on new technologies and methods in life high tech staff,whereas enterprises also need manage- sciences that have close relation to crops are all given ment personnel;either high tech staff or management priority to be supported during the ninth Five-Year Plan personnel alone are not sufficient to push biotechnology to period (1996-2000).In addition,biotechnology is also rapid development and maturity.Currently,both kinds of listed as a special field to be supported in high technology, personnel are in short supply;moreover,senior personnel new concepts,and new pilot exploration projects spon- that are capable of research and possess business sense sored by NSFC [31].It is reported that the funds devoted are even in greater shortage.(ii)There is an unbalanced to life science and biotechnology only by the Ministry of allocation of biotechnology educational resources in the Science and Technology NSFC and the China Academy of eastern and western parts of China.The allocation status Sciences since 2000 are up to 2.25 billion RMB(about 0.28 shown in Table IV reflects the problem clearly. billion U.S.dollars)each year.The amount of funds allo- Prospects-In the high tech industrialization program of cated to each project is increasing year by year,i.e.during the 10th Five-Year Plan(2001-2005),"Biotechnology In- the 5 years from 1999 to 2003,the funds allocated by the dustry Projects"are listed as one of 12 national key NSFC to general projects grew from 96,000 RMB (about projects.Moreover,the Chinese government clearly raises 11,985 U.S.dollars)in 1999 to 173,000 RMB (about the idea of developing biotechnology industry as a new 21,598 U.S.dollars)in 2003 per project [32].The National backbone industry.According to the latest news of the Basic Research Program (also called the "973"program), China Biotechnology Development Center of Ministry of implemented in 1997 by the Ministry of Science and Tech- nology,launched basic research focusing on agriculture, Science and Technology (www.cncbd.org.cn),state in- vestment to biotechnology will be over 10 billion (about energy sources,information,resources and environment, population and health,and materials.From 1998 to 2002 1.25 billion U.S.dollars)for the following 5 years,and 132"973"projects had been launched,among which 17 China will try to make the level of biotechnology funda- projects were related to biotechnology in agriculture and mental research reach the world's advanced level,mean- 21 projects were related to biotechnology in population while,to cultivate a number of biotechnology enterprises and health,which has also played an active role in moti- that can be competitive in the world. vating the development of biotechnology education in In Chinese higher education,the period of schooling is China. shortened,the number of courses is reduced,and the continuous distributaries system(from bachelor to master PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS to doctor)to link up the education of undergraduate and Problems-The shortage and unbalanced allocation of master is implemented:to distribute undergraduates in human resources of biotechnology are key problems.(i) grade 4 at one time,i.e.outstanding undergraduates can The human resources of biotechnology are in short supply. step into postgraduate study directly,and they will be Life science is a quite newly born research and application redistributed after 2 years of postgraduate study,and field in China,involving biology,chemistry,medicine,and postgraduates with the best performance can start doc- technology,etc.The development of the biotechnology toral study in advance of the schedule.In this way,the industry is in urgent need of professional biotechnology senior biotechnology personnel's training period is short- researchers,and workers as well as personnel in the man- ened from 10 years to 8 years.In addition,through years of agement,patenting and law,and sales and marketing key subject construction and several years of 211 project areas.However,it requires time to train professional biol- supported construction,postgraduate education has met ogy staffs.Although biotechnology research staffs have the basic requirement for further development to some been trained or recruited,generally speaking,biotechnol- extents.As forecasted,postgraduate students will reach ogy staffs are still in short supply,and the supply is far 500,000,among which 100,000 are Ph.D.candidates [34]. from meeting demands.(ii)Biotechnology personnel are Postgraduate education in China is being transited from centralized in universities and research institutes,whereas education of the essential personnel to education of the badly lacked in enterprises.The development of biotech- masses
karyote, fundamental research on major disease and insect occurrence and development, rule, and control of economic animals and plants, studies on formation mechanism and genetics of important character in animal and plant, and studies on new technologies and methods in life sciences that have close relation to crops are all given priority to be supported during the ninth Five-Year Plan period (1996 –2000). In addition, biotechnology is also listed as a special field to be supported in high technology, new concepts, and new pilot exploration projects sponsored by NSFC [31]. It is reported that the funds devoted to life science and biotechnology only by the Ministry of Science and Technology NSFC and the China Academy of Sciences since 2000 are up to 2.25 billion RMB (about 0.28 billion U. S. dollars) each year. The amount of funds allocated to each project is increasing year by year, i.e. during the 5 years from 1999 to 2003, the funds allocated by the NSFC to general projects grew from 96,000 RMB (about 11,985 U. S. dollars) in 1999 to 173,000 RMB (about 21,598 U. S. dollars) in 2003 per project [32]. The National Basic Research Program (also called the “973” program), implemented in 1997 by the Ministry of Science and Technology, launched basic research focusing on agriculture, energy sources, information, resources and environment, population and health, and materials. From 1998 to 2002, 132 “973” projects had been launched, among which 17 projects were related to biotechnology in agriculture and 21 projects were related to biotechnology in population and health, which has also played an active role in motivating the development of biotechnology education in China. PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Problems—The shortage and unbalanced allocation of human resources of biotechnology are key problems. (i) The human resources of biotechnology are in short supply. Life science is a quite newly born research and application field in China, involving biology, chemistry, medicine, and technology, etc. The development of the biotechnology industry is in urgent need of professional biotechnology researchers, and workers as well as personnel in the management, patenting and law, and sales and marketing areas. However, it requires time to train professional biology staffs. Although biotechnology research staffs have been trained or recruited, generally speaking, biotechnology staffs are still in short supply, and the supply is far from meeting demands. (ii) Biotechnology personnel are centralized in universities and research institutes, whereas badly lacked in enterprises. The development of biotechnology requires not only technical staff but also management personnel. Each year, the need for research staffs is comparatively more than the need for management personnel. The innovation of science and technology requires high tech staff, whereas enterprises also need management personnel; either high tech staff or management personnel alone are not sufficient to push biotechnology to rapid development and maturity. Currently, both kinds of personnel are in short supply; moreover, senior personnel that are capable of research and possess business sense are even in greater shortage. (iii) There is an unbalanced allocation of biotechnology educational resources in the eastern and western parts of China. The allocation status shown in Table IV reflects the problem clearly. Prospects—In the high tech industrialization program of the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005), “Biotechnology Industry Projects” are listed as one of 12 national key projects. Moreover, the Chinese government clearly raises the idea of developing biotechnology industry as a new backbone industry. According to the latest news of the China Biotechnology Development Center of Ministry of Science and Technology (www.cncbd.org.cn), state investment to biotechnology will be over 10 billion (about 1.25 billion U. S. dollars) for the following 5 years, and China will try to make the level of biotechnology fundamental research reach the world’s advanced level, meanwhile, to cultivate a number of biotechnology enterprises that can be competitive in the world. In Chinese higher education, the period of schooling is shortened, the number of courses is reduced, and the continuous distributaries system (from bachelor to master to doctor) to link up the education of undergraduate and master is implemented: to distribute undergraduates in grade 4 at one time, i.e. outstanding undergraduates can step into postgraduate study directly, and they will be redistributed after 2 years of postgraduate study, and postgraduates with the best performance can start doctoral study in advance of the schedule. In this way, the senior biotechnology personnel’s training period is shortened from 10 years to 8 years. In addition, through years of key subject construction and several years of 211 project supported construction, postgraduate education has met the basic requirement for further development to some extents. As forecasted, postgraduate students will reach 500,000, among which 100,000 are Ph.D. candidates [34]. Postgraduate education in China is being transited from education of the essential personnel to education of the masses. TABLE IV Chinese doctoral and master’s degree authorized institutions and authorized subjects allocation statistics (till Dec. 2002) [33] Districta Doctoral degree authorized institutions Doctoral degree authorized subjects Master’s degree authorized institutions Master’s degree authorized subjects Quantity Percentage (%) Points Percentage (%) Quantity Percentage (%) Points Percentage (%) Eastern 199 63.78 951 61.67 415 57.16 4848 50.02 Middle 59 18.91 340 22.05 148 20.39 2602 26.84 Western 54 17.31 251 16.28 163 22.45 2243 23.14 Total 312 100.00 1542 100.00 726 100.00 9693 100.00 a The eastern part of China includes Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shandong, Guangdong, Fujian, Shanghai, and so on. The western part of China includes Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Sinkiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Chongqing. The middle part of China includes Shanxi, Henan, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, and so on. 146 BAMBED, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 141–147, 2006
147 CONCLUSION [13]www2.sjtu.edu.cn/newweb/chinese/web4/underg/school8. [14]www.jwu.fudn.edu.cn/xdzd (revised 2005). The Chinese Academy of Sciences,colleges and univer- [15]G.P.Zhou,J.Wu (2002)Historic evolvement of degree system in sities,trade departments.and local scientific research in neoteric China,J.Higher Edu.23,97-101. stitutions together composed the research system of Chi- [16]W.G.Shen,F.Y.Huang,Y.H.Wang (2003)Deep reform,active nese modern life science and biotechnology.Agriculture, innovation and struggle to carry out the development strategy of synchronous improving quantity and quality-retrospect and pros- forestry,herd and fishery,medicine and sanitation,light pects to degree and postgraduate education of Lanzhou University, industry,food processing industry,and environmental pro- Higher Sci.Edu.3,82-88 [17]B.X.Wu (2003)Historical retrospect of granting work on the first tection composed the industrial system of Chinese bio- group doctoral degree in our country,Degree Postgraduate Edu.11, technology industrialization development;the education 6-9. system of Chinese modern biotechnology was made by [18]International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium(2001)Initial various schools.Biotechnology is not only the curriculum sequencing and analysis of the human genome,Nature 409 860-g21 of life science major in colleges and universities but also [19]J.Yu,S.Hu,J.Wang,G.K.Wong,S.Li,B.Liu,Y.Deng,L.Dai,Y. the public curriculum of improving people's quality and Zhou,X.Zhang,et al.(2002)A Draft Sequence of the Rice Genome (Oryza sativa L.ssp.indica).Science 296,79-92. popularizing scientific education.Although there is no spe- [20]J.H.Xia,C.Y.Liu,B.S.Tang,Q.Pan,L.Huang,H.P.Dai,B.R. cialized designated biotechnology curriculum during the Zhang,W.Xie,D.X.Hu,D.Zheng,X.L.Shi,D.A.Wang,K.Xia,K.P. middle school education period or other education peri- Yu,X.D.Liao,Y.Feng,Y.F.Yang,J.Y.Xiao,D.H.Xie,and J.Z. Huang (1998)Mutations in the gene encoding gap junction protein ods,the contents of modern biotechnology courses lies in beta-3 associated with autosomal dominant hearing impairment.Nat junior middle school,senior middle school,and college Genet20.370-373. and postgraduate education becoming deeper and deeper [21]W.Wang,J.F.Wu,Z.Y.Zhang,and T.Tong (2001)Characterization of regulatory elements on the promoter region of p16(INK4a)that gradually,playing a key role that other subject education contribute to overexpression of p16 in senescent fibroblasts.J.Biol. can't play in improving civil science quality and culture Chem.276,48655-48661. quality.We believe China will enter into the biotechnology [22]Q.Feng,Y.J.Zhang,P.Hao,S.Wang,G.Fu,Y.Huang,Y.Li,J.Zhu, Y.Liu.X.Hu,et al.(2002)Sequence and analysis of rice chromosome society in the near future. 4.Nature420,316-321. [23]L.B.Guo,S.H.Cheng,Q.Qian(2004)Highlights in Sequencing and REFERENCES Analysis of Rice Genome.Chin.J.Rice Sci.18.557-562. [1]F.Severcan,A.Ozan,P.I.Haris(2000)Development of biotechnology [24]L.P.Yuan(2004)Hybrid rice technology for food security in the world, education in Turkey,Biochem.Edu.28,36-38. Crop Res.(Hunan)4,185-186. [2]K.Zhao,X.H.Wang(2003)Application of biotechnology in agricul- [25]Z.W.He,Y.F.Chen,X.S.Wu,(2005)Development and countermea- ture,Lett.Biotech.14,342-345. sure of transgenic cotton in China,World Agric.1,18-22. [3]J.Zhu,Y.T.Lu (2003)Application of Modern Biotechnology to [26]X.W.Hu,H.P.Chen,Z.M.Tang,Q.J Ma (2005)Comparison of Environmental Detection,Shanghai Environ.Detection 22,717-721. Approval Biomedicines among U.S.A.,EU and China.China Bio- [4]Z.Wang(2002)Application of Modem Biotechnology to TCM study, technol.25,82-94. J.Beijing Univ.TCM 25.34-37. [27]L.Xue,S.M.Du(2002)China has also successfully cloned series [5]www.863.org.cn/english/index.html. sheep and cows by somatic cell,Progress Nat.Sci.12,749. [6]Y.C.Zhao,C.K.Zhang (2003)Development trend of biotechnology [28]www.lifescience.com.cn. and its industries,Modern Chem.Industry 23.1-4. 29 www.sinatex.com/260/260109.htm. [7]J.Wang,H.Chen(2003)On the Characteristic and Advantages the 30 www.welan.com/bookdetail/more.asp. Biotechnology Department Having in Developing the Biotechnology 31]F.Feng,X.Q.Yang,H.J.Jiang (2000)Crop Biotechnology Research Vocational Education,Haidian Univ.J.3,23-25. Supported by NSFC,Biotechnol.Inform.1,42-44. [8]X.L.Wen(2003)Discussion about Chinese companies coming into [32]P.Liu,C.G.Wang (2004)Overview and hotspots of the fundamental the market and biotechnology industry,Sci.Tech.Industry China 7, research on traditional Chinese medicine biotechnology in China, 37-39 Chinese J.Nat.Med.2,7-10. [9]bio.pku.edu.cn/teaching/undergrad.jsp. 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CONCLUSION The Chinese Academy of Sciences, colleges and universities, trade departments, and local scientific research institutions together composed the research system of Chinese modern life science and biotechnology. Agriculture, forestry, herd and fishery, medicine and sanitation, light industry, food processing industry, and environmental protection composed the industrial system of Chinese biotechnology industrialization development; the education system of Chinese modern biotechnology was made by various schools. Biotechnology is not only the curriculum of life science major in colleges and universities but also the public curriculum of improving people’s quality and popularizing scientific education. Although there is no specialized designated biotechnology curriculum during the middle school education period or other education periods, the contents of modern biotechnology courses lies in junior middle school, senior middle school, and college and postgraduate education becoming deeper and deeper gradually, playing a key role that other subject education can’t play in improving civil science quality and culture quality. We believe China will enter into the biotechnology society in the near future. REFERENCES [1] F. Severcan, A. Ozan, P. I. Haris (2000) Development of biotechnology education in Turkey, Biochem. Edu. 28, 36 –38. [2] K. Zhao, X. H. Wang (2003) Application of biotechnology in agriculture, Lett. Biotech. 14, 342–345. [3] J. Zhu, Y. T. Lu (2003) Application of Modern Biotechnology to Environmental Detection, Shanghai Environ. Detection 22, 717–721. [4] Z. Wang (2002) Application of Modern Biotechnology to TCM study, J. Beijing Univ. TCM 25, 34 –37. 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