1 Minds on the move:New links from psychology to tourism Pearce,P.L.and Packer,J.(2013).Minds on the move:New links from psychology to tourism.Annals of Tourism Research,40,386-411. ABSTRACT This review,which is organised according to key themes,suggests that tourism researchers can profit from contemporary developments in mainstream psychology The themes addressed are motivation and destination choice,attitudes and satisfaction, memory,and personal growth.Patterned and dual processing approaches to behaviour are highlighted.Additionally a framework for advancing the analysis of minds on the move should consider a range of dimensions including emic and etic approaches, transects across domains of inquiry,social as well as individual processes, longitudinal work,pan-cultural analysis and contextual classifications.It is argued that accessing psychology scholarship can build the capacity of tourism researchers. (100 words) Keywords:psychology;motivation;attitudes;satisfaction;memory;personal growth INTRODUCTION This article seeks to assist tourism scholars who need to deal with topics and interest areas which have their roots in mainstream psychology.It is addressed in particular to those who are most interested in how tourists think,feel and behave.As an area of study psychology consists of a vast assembly of ideas,theories and methods for systematically examining human behaviour and experience.It is predominantly focussed at the individual level but social processes and interaction are often viewed as strongly influencing core human functioning.Psychology has a rich history and an organised academy with literally thousands of scholars contributing to the discipline's ongoing evolution(Martin,Carlson Buskit,2007).For tourism scholars the breadth and intense scrutiny of human behaviour and experience undertaken within psychology represents both a resource and a challenge.Mining a resource is not always a simple task as one needs to be careful with what is borrowed and how it is applied.Additionally there are challenges in being mindful of fresh opportunities and not being trapped by previous borrowings and sources of strength. The emphasis in the following sections is on the work of modern twenty-first century psychology.Psychoanalysis and behaviourism,both fading traditions from earlier eras of inquiry,are not a part of the present compass of interest.There is a continuing thread of interest in these earlier traditions of intellectual inquiry as applied to tourism(cf.Kingsbury and Brunn,2004,Tran and Ralston,2006)but as Plog(1987)reported over a quarter of century ago,the concepts are loose,hard to pin down and difficult to apply in consensually agreed on ways.Additionally while psychologists,like some tourism researchers,are broadly interested in minds and existential concerns,our immediate concern does not extend to philosophical debates on the links between mind and body (Gould 2004;Grayling 2005).Instead,a view is adopted that we are concerned with minds on the move where the term mind refers to the lived and reported mental states of tourists. The approach taken in this review is thematic.It is an approach that requires explanation.Typically,there have been somewhat separate fields of inquiry in such
1 Minds on the move: New links from psychology to tourism Pearce, P.L. and Packer, J. (2013). Minds on the move: New links from psychology to tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 386-411. ABSTRACT This review, which is organised according to key themes, suggests that tourism researchers can profit from contemporary developments in mainstream psychology. The themes addressed are motivation and destination choice, attitudes and satisfaction, memory, and personal growth. Patterned and dual processing approaches to behaviour are highlighted. Additionally a framework for advancing the analysis of minds on the move should consider a range of dimensions including emic and etic approaches, transects across domains of inquiry, social as well as individual processes, longitudinal work, pan-cultural analysis and contextual classifications. It is argued that accessing psychology scholarship can build the capacity of tourism researchers. (100 words) Keywords: psychology; motivation; attitudes; satisfaction; memory; personal growth. INTRODUCTION This article seeks to assist tourism scholars who need to deal with topics and interest areas which have their roots in mainstream psychology. It is addressed in particular to those who are most interested in how tourists think, feel and behave. As an area of study psychology consists of a vast assembly of ideas, theories and methods for systematically examining human behaviour and experience. It is predominantly focussed at the individual level but social processes and interaction are often viewed as strongly influencing core human functioning. Psychology has a rich history and an organised academy with literally thousands of scholars contributing to the discipline’s ongoing evolution (Martin, Carlson & Buskit, 2007). For tourism scholars the breadth and intense scrutiny of human behaviour and experience undertaken within psychology represents both a resource and a challenge. Mining a resource is not always a simple task as one needs to be careful with what is borrowed and how it is applied. Additionally there are challenges in being mindful of fresh opportunities and not being trapped by previous borrowings and sources of strength. The emphasis in the following sections is on the work of modern twenty-first century psychology. Psychoanalysis and behaviourism, both fading traditions from earlier eras of inquiry, are not a part of the present compass of interest. There is a continuing thread of interest in these earlier traditions of intellectual inquiry as applied to tourism (cf. Kingsbury and Brunn, 2004, Tran and Ralston, 2006) but as Plog (1987) reported over a quarter of century ago, the concepts are loose, hard to pin down and difficult to apply in consensually agreed on ways. Additionally while psychologists, like some tourism researchers, are broadly interested in minds and existential concerns, our immediate concern does not extend to philosophical debates on the links between mind and body (Gould 2004; Grayling 2005). Instead, a view is adopted that we are concerned with minds on the move where the term mind refers to the lived and reported mental states of tourists. The approach taken in this review is thematic. It is an approach that requires explanation. Typically, there have been somewhat separate fields of inquiry in such
2 domains as memory and cognition,social psychology,clinical psychology, personality,physiological psychology and developmental psychology.Some more recent trends in the last decade have seen courses and texts in positive psychology, evolutionary psychology,cross-cultural psychology and health psychology.The implications of these divisions within psychology for tourism study are that particular topics need to be treated across these intra-discipline divides.Social behaviours and relationships,for example,are considered predominantly within social psychology but there are interesting sub-themes of inquiry and innovative ideas within cognition, personality,clinical studies,and importantly positive psychology.In this review we will try to link the thematic threads of inquiry across the contributions from different psychology fields(cf.Hofstede,1995). A small sample of the research in tourism which addresses mental processes and the embodied actions of those who travel is captured in some key monographs and overviews(Bowen Clarke,2009;Crouch,Perdue,Timmermans Uysal,2004: Kozak DeCrop,2009;March Woodside,2005;Mazanec,Crouch,Ritchie, Woodside,2001;Morgan,Lugosi,Ritchie,2010;Pearce,2005,2011;Pizam Mansfeld,2000;Ryan,1995).A more specific appreciation of the linkages can be gleaned from a summary of the topic areas pertinent to publications in Annals of Tourism Research from a recent span of work,specifically 2007-2011.Other publication outlets may have somewhat different emphases but the broad ordering of interest areas listed in Table 1 is supported by comprehensive bibliometric counts and assessments of psychology related tourism studies(Barrios,Borrego,Vilagines,Olle Somoza,2008)
2 domains as memory and cognition, social psychology, clinical psychology, personality, physiological psychology and developmental psychology. Some more recent trends in the last decade have seen courses and texts in positive psychology, evolutionary psychology, cross-cultural psychology and health psychology. The implications of these divisions within psychology for tourism study are that particular topics need to be treated across these intra-discipline divides. Social behaviours and relationships, for example, are considered predominantly within social psychology but there are interesting sub-themes of inquiry and innovative ideas within cognition, personality, clinical studies, and importantly positive psychology. In this review we will try to link the thematic threads of inquiry across the contributions from different psychology fields (cf. Hofstede, 1995). A small sample of the research in tourism which addresses mental processes and the embodied actions of those who travel is captured in some key monographs and overviews (Bowen & Clarke, 2009; Crouch, Perdue, Timmermans & Uysal, 2004; Kozak & DeCrop, 2009; March & Woodside, 2005; Mazanec, Crouch, Ritchie, & Woodside, 2001; Morgan, Lugosi, & Ritchie, 2010; Pearce, 2005, 2011; Pizam & Mansfeld, 2000; Ryan, 1995). A more specific appreciation of the linkages can be gleaned from a summary of the topic areas pertinent to publications in Annals of Tourism Research from a recent span of work, specifically 2007-2011. Other publication outlets may have somewhat different emphases but the broad ordering of interest areas listed in Table 1 is supported by comprehensive bibliometric counts and assessments of psychology related tourism studies (Barrios, Borrego, Vilagines, Olle & Somoza, 2008)
3 Table 1 Numbers of recent articles linking psychology and tourism themes.Annals of Tourism Research 2007-2011. Directly related-major themes Directly related-minor themes Decision making,consumer behaviour(14) Perceptions and memories(4) Motivation(10) Psychological benefits(3) Satisfaction and attitudes(8) Tourist experiences(3) Social interaction(5) Destination image(3) Identity and self concept(2) Indirectly related-major themes Indirectly related-minor themes Knowledge and understanding(6) Humour(1) Heritage and interpretation (6) Involvement and interest(1) Note."Directly-related themes"are tourism research topics that draw primarily from well-established psychological concepts and subfields "Indirectly-related themes"are tourism research topics that draw primarily from other fields to which psychology also contributes,e.g.,Education,Geography,Cultural Studies,or which draw from new or emerging areas of psychological research Major themes are those where more than five articles were identified;minor themes are those where fewer than five articles were identified. As space does not permit full discussion of each of the topics identified in Table 1, they have been combined as coherently as possible into four broad sets of themes. Initially,two groupings of the themes represented in Table 1 will be considered.The themes are motivation and decision making,and then attitudes and satisfaction.A second section of the paper will consider the more recent interests of tourism studies which can be linked to psychological inquiry.On this occasion the themes to be pursued are memory and personal growth.All of these topics will be considered not so much as inventories of the work already conducted in tourism but more in the spirit of how tourism scholars can re-conceptualise these issues by connecting to dominant considerations in up-to-date psychology research.In a further section some of the concepts borrowed originally from psychology which are now seen as of limited value will be reviewed.Finally,a broad guide to future work will be briefly documented. Many readers of this paper will undoubtedly have some interest in psychology but not a formal training in the discipline.Contemporary tourism courses in business schools in particular tend to give only marginal attention to serious subject options in psychology.This paper offers some guidance to key recent developments but is necessarily selective.There are substantial resources to help scholars seeking to
31 Table 1 Numbers of recent articles linking psychology and tourism themes. Annals of Tourism Research 2007-2011. Directly related- major themes Decision making, consumer behaviour (14) Motivation (10) Satisfaction and attitudes (8) Social interaction (5) Directly related –minor themes Perceptions and memories (4) Psychological benefits (3) Tourist experiences (3) Destination image (3) Identity and self concept (2) Indirectly related- major themes Knowledge and understanding (6) Heritage and interpretation (6) Indirectly related –minor themes Humour (1) Involvement and interest (1) Note. “Directly-related themes” are tourism research topics that draw primarily from well-established psychological concepts and subfields “Indirectly-related themes” are tourism research topics that draw primarily from other fields to which psychology also contributes, e.g., Education, Geography, Cultural Studies, or which draw from new or emerging areas of psychological research Major themes are those where more than five articles were identified; minor themes are those where fewer than five articles were identified. As space does not permit full discussion of each of the topics identified in Table 1, they have been combined as coherently as possible into four broad sets of themes. Initially, two groupings of the themes represented in Table 1 will be considered. The themes are motivation and decision making, and then attitudes and satisfaction. A second section of the paper will consider the more recent interests of tourism studies which can be linked to psychological inquiry. On this occasion the themes to be pursued are memory and personal growth. All of these topics will be considered not so much as inventories of the work already conducted in tourism but more in the spirit of how tourism scholars can re-conceptualise these issues by connecting to dominant considerations in up-to-date psychology research. In a further section some of the concepts borrowed originally from psychology which are now seen as of limited value will be reviewed. Finally, a broad guide to future work will be briefly documented. Many readers of this paper will undoubtedly have some interest in psychology but not a formal training in the discipline. Contemporary tourism courses in business schools in particular tend to give only marginal attention to serious subject options in psychology. This paper offers some guidance to key recent developments but is necessarily selective. There are substantial resources to help scholars seeking to
4 develop a richer understanding of what people do,why they do it and how they feel and think about their lives.The journals Psychological Bulletin and Annual Review of Psychology offer comprehensive reviews,often spanning several decades of work, that trace the intricate development of core ideas and evaluate their current status. Increasingly,major figures in the psychology field write more popular and accessible but still research-derived,versions of their work in key monographs.In the present review examples include Argyle(2001),Seligman(2002),Nisbettt(2003),Collett (2004),Wiseman(2007),Diener and Biswas-Diener(2008).Furnham(2008). Zimbardo and Boyd(2008),and Langer(2009).The approach of monitoring the accessible work of well-established psychology scholars backed by detailed contemporary journal review articles offers stimulating educational pathways for many tourism students and scholars. MOTIVATION AND DESTINATION CHOICE Why people travel Answering the question"Why do people travel?"is,in both an academic and applied sense,a formative but naive question.It is akin to asking the equally broad question"What are the impacts of tourism?"A better approach for those seeking a rich understanding of motivation is why certain groups of people choose certain holiday experiences (see,for example,Larsen,Ogaard Brun's 2011 study on the motivations of backpackers).Importantly,we need to answer these more specific questions without simply re-describing what we observe or seek to study.Such circularity is evident when assertions are made that people choose risky or adventurous activities because they are motivated by sensation or risk seeking (Furnham,2008). Studies of tourist motivation and the linked issue of how tourists choose their holiday destinations are fundamental to much tourism inquiry.Regrettably there has been a dependence on a limited slice of the psychological literature when motivation and decision making issues have been tackled in tourism research(cf.Wlodkowski, 1993,who recognises twenty internationally credible motivation theories).For example,the approach of Abraham Maslow emphasising self-actualisation and a depiction of his work as involving a hierarchy of needs is a familiar model to nearly every business and tourism undergraduate.These ideas are frequently cited as pivotal contributions to our understanding of motivation(Hsu Huang,2008).Some sixty years after its initial formulation,it can be suggested that the value of Maslow's work lies not in the hierarchical system associated with his studies but resides more simply in the diversity of motive forces he outlined.All five levels of Maslow's hierarchy can be seen as co-acting in determining a complete motivational profile(Hsu Huang,2008;Pearce,2011).In particular new status-and relationship-informed patterns of motivational aspirations appear to be necessary in contemporary times as tourism researchers and others consider cultural groups and especially Asian nationalities which were not originally encompassed in Maslow's work(Pearce Panchal,2011;Schutte and Ciarlante,1998). The argument that there are other rich,even untapped,sources of ideas about motivation in fundamental psychology is supported by accessing recent writing on positive psychology(Diener Biswas-Diener,2008).In particular the notion that human beings seek to build their well-being in ways consonant with their values and related to acquiring key character strengths represents a teleological or forward looking approach to social motivation relevant to contexts such as tourism
4 develop a richer understanding of what people do, why they do it and how they feel and think about their lives. The journals Psychological Bulletin and Annual Review of Psychology offer comprehensive reviews, often spanning several decades of work, that trace the intricate development of core ideas and evaluate their current status. Increasingly, major figures in the psychology field write more popular and accessible, but still research-derived, versions of their work in key monographs. In the present review examples include Argyle (2001), Seligman (2002), Nisbettt (2003), Collett (2004), Wiseman (2007), Diener and Biswas-Diener (2008). Furnham (2008), Zimbardo and Boyd (2008), and Langer (2009). The approach of monitoring the accessible work of well-established psychology scholars backed by detailed contemporary journal review articles offers stimulating educational pathways for many tourism students and scholars. MOTIVATION AND DESTINATION CHOICE Why people travel Answering the question “Why do people travel?” is, in both an academic and applied sense, a formative but naïve question. It is akin to asking the equally broad question “What are the impacts of tourism?” A better approach for those seeking a rich understanding of motivation is why certain groups of people choose certain holiday experiences (see, for example, Larsen, Øgaard & Brun’s 2011 study on the motivations of backpackers). Importantly, we need to answer these more specific questions without simply re-describing what we observe or seek to study. Such circularity is evident when assertions are made that people choose risky or adventurous activities because they are motivated by sensation or risk seeking (Furnham, 2008). Studies of tourist motivation and the linked issue of how tourists choose their holiday destinations are fundamental to much tourism inquiry. Regrettably there has been a dependence on a limited slice of the psychological literature when motivation and decision making issues have been tackled in tourism research (cf. Wlodkowski, 1993, who recognises twenty internationally credible motivation theories). For example, the approach of Abraham Maslow emphasising self-actualisation and a depiction of his work as involving a hierarchy of needs is a familiar model to nearly every business and tourism undergraduate. These ideas are frequently cited as pivotal contributions to our understanding of motivation (Hsu & Huang, 2008). Some sixty years after its initial formulation, it can be suggested that the value of Maslow’s work lies not in the hierarchical system associated with his studies but resides more simply in the diversity of motive forces he outlined. All five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy can be seen as co-acting in determining a complete motivational profile (Hsu & Huang, 2008; Pearce, 2011). In particular new status- and relationship-informed patterns of motivational aspirations appear to be necessary in contemporary times as tourism researchers and others consider cultural groups and especially Asian nationalities which were not originally encompassed in Maslow’s work (Pearce & Panchal, 2011; Schutte and Ciarlante, 1998). The argument that there are other rich, even untapped, sources of ideas about motivation in fundamental psychology is supported by accessing recent writing on positive psychology (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008). In particular the notion that human beings seek to build their well-being in ways consonant with their values and related to acquiring key character strengths represents a teleological or forward looking approach to social motivation relevant to contexts such as tourism
5 (Csikszentmihalyi Csikszentmihalyi,2006;Seligman 2002).These approaches may be contrasted with earlier but well known Freudian-derived psychoanalytic or personality approaches built on deficit models where individuals are sometimes seen as trapped by their personal past or influenced by evolutionary imperatives.By way of contrast the newer motivation work suggests that individuals seek to maximise their overall state of well-being.This newer emphasis considers not only immediate sensory pleasures(although these remain important)but also includes attempts to achieve desired goals such as respect,status,enhanced relationships,altruism,self- regulation,zest,and several other eudemonic outcomes(Park,Peterson Seligman, 2006).This kind of thinking enriches tourism researchers'attempts to understand why people travel,compared with older notions based on the more limited deficit models of arousal,personality malfunctioning,anxiety or stereotyped applications of Maslow's formulation (Ateljevic,2000;Crompton,1979;Gnoth,1997;Iso Ahola, 1982,Plog,1974). A number of tourism based motivation commentators have specified what is required of theory in this area.The requirements include a treatment of the multi- motive drivers of tourist behaviour,an ability to consider the dynamic and changing nature of an individual's motivation across their tourism experiences and the need for theories and conceptual systems to function as integrative and predictive but also empirically accessible foundations for research(Bowen Clarke 2009;Hsu Huang, 2008;Pearce 1992,2005).A major candidate for developing the study of tourist motivation according to these requirements is the travel career pattern approach reported initially by Pearce Lee(2005)and recently augmented by linking the concepts to core work in affective neuroscience (Panksepp,2005;Pearce 2011).The material on motivation(and emotions)from neuroscience adds to the value of tourism studies by providing contemporary support for the importance of the physiological need for change and social contact.For example,the contribution of affective neuroscience ideas to the travel career model lies in recognising that core affective states such as 'seeking'(e.g.,the need to deal with novelty and change in one's environment)and care'(e.g.,the need to build relationships),directly support the motives that are central to the travel career approach.Other basic affective processes underlie the peripheral motive links. Both in linking to the teleological concerns of positive psychology and by considering the applicability of neuroscience findings the potential exists for tourism researchers to build more complete and solidly based motivation research.In summary,new views of tourist motivation will be oriented more towards a view of tourists as actors who are self-determining,creative,forward looking opportunists who benefit from their own learning and previous experience without being trapped by their personal past.Some of their motivation and experience will be linked to deep and basic emotions but this view is not incompatible with the suggestion that there are key culturally relevant values which may shape the directions of individual ambition. An interesting connection can be noted between this psychology-derived literature and other assessment and category systems which address the roots of tourist travel style and experience.For example,a hybrid blend of motives,interests and travel types underlies Cohen's well known division of tourists into recreational,diversionary, experimental,experiential and existential categories (Cohen,1979).Much of the attention using this scheme has been on whether or not special sub-groups such as backpackers are best described by the existential category or by the other labels (Maoz,2005;Noy,2004).The category scheme devised by Cohen has been and remains influential.It can be seen as an intuitive sorting of sets of motives which are
5 (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006; Seligman 2002). These approaches may be contrasted with earlier but well known Freudian-derived psychoanalytic or personality approaches built on deficit models where individuals are sometimes seen as trapped by their personal past or influenced by evolutionary imperatives. By way of contrast the newer motivation work suggests that individuals seek to maximise their overall state of well-being. This newer emphasis considers not only immediate sensory pleasures (although these remain important) but also includes attempts to achieve desired goals such as respect, status, enhanced relationships, altruism, selfregulation, zest, and several other eudemonic outcomes (Park, Peterson & Seligman, 2006). This kind of thinking enriches tourism researchers’ attempts to understand why people travel, compared with older notions based on the more limited deficit models of arousal, personality malfunctioning, anxiety or stereotyped applications of Maslow’s formulation (Ateljevic, 2000; Crompton, 1979; Gnoth, 1997; Iso Ahola, 1982; Plog, 1974). A number of tourism based motivation commentators have specified what is required of theory in this area. The requirements include a treatment of the multimotive drivers of tourist behaviour, an ability to consider the dynamic and changing nature of an individual’s motivation across their tourism experiences and the need for theories and conceptual systems to function as integrative and predictive but also empirically accessible foundations for research (Bowen & Clarke 2009; Hsu & Huang, 2008; Pearce 1992, 2005). A major candidate for developing the study of tourist motivation according to these requirements is the travel career pattern approach reported initially by Pearce & Lee (2005) and recently augmented by linking the concepts to core work in affective neuroscience (Panksepp, 2005; Pearce 2011). The material on motivation (and emotions) from neuroscience adds to the value of tourism studies by providing contemporary support for the importance of the physiological need for change and social contact. For example, the contribution of affective neuroscience ideas to the travel career model lies in recognising that core affective states such as ‘seeking’ (e.g., the need to deal with novelty and change in one’s environment) and ‘care’ (e.g., the need to build relationships), directly support the motives that are central to the travel career approach. Other basic affective processes underlie the peripheral motive links. Both in linking to the teleological concerns of positive psychology and by considering the applicability of neuroscience findings the potential exists for tourism researchers to build more complete and solidly based motivation research. In summary, new views of tourist motivation will be oriented more towards a view of tourists as actors who are self-determining, creative, forward looking opportunists who benefit from their own learning and previous experience without being trapped by their personal past. Some of their motivation and experience will be linked to deep and basic emotions but this view is not incompatible with the suggestion that there are key culturally relevant values which may shape the directions of individual ambition. An interesting connection can be noted between this psychology-derived literature and other assessment and category systems which address the roots of tourist travel style and experience. For example, a hybrid blend of motives, interests and travel types underlies Cohen’s well known division of tourists into recreational, diversionary, experimental, experiential and existential categories (Cohen, 1979). Much of the attention using this scheme has been on whether or not special sub-groups such as backpackers are best described by the existential category or by the other labels (Maoz, 2005; Noy, 2004). The category scheme devised by Cohen has been and remains influential. It can be seen as an intuitive sorting of sets of motives which are
6 then linked to tourist characteristics.As the detailed work on the tapestry of tourist motives evolves,contemporary work on motivation patterns may identify common staged or sequential patterns closely aligned to Cohen's formulation. Destination choices One way,but not the only way,of integrating travel motivation studies into other aspects of tourism research lies in connecting the motivation models and patterns to destination choice studies.There are many kinds of travel decisions and choices including selecting transport,accommodation and activity options.In more recent times the advent of consumer referral and evaluation systems,including popular internet sites such as TripAdvisor,have stimulated researchers'interest in tourists within-destination choices.Nevertheless,the overriding historical concern of tourism researchers has been in destination image and selection(March Woodside,2005; Pike,2002).Two broadly similar models,that of Um and Crompton(1990)and Woodside and Lysonski(1989)have dominated the field.These approaches and their derivatives systematically pursue a highly rational,choice set based,sequential process.This process consists of tourists supposedly engaging in an orderly sorting of alternatives,refining and filtering the options according to individual motives and the tourists'personal circumstances,and ultimately selecting the one final destination. The approach implicitly leans on the structured,orderly choice model of decision making summarised in earlier cognition and social psychology studies by Janis and Mann(1973)】 Goldstein(2011)reports more up-to-date work in cognition which reveals that the nature of decision making and the processes it involves are powerfully affected by how problems are presented.In some circumstances individuals will be rational and follow logical routes while in others a range of biases and emotion-charged heuristics will be employed.The application of the heuristics approach to decision making can be illustrated by considering accommodation choices linked to TripAdvisor.How are the comments read?Do would-be accommodation users follow a carefully structured elimination process built on rational consideration of the available options?Or do they glance at the first two or three comments and search for a heuristic such as a really negative comment which overpowers all the others? The potential answers to these questions are being worked out in the consumer behaviour and tourism studies literature and are beginning to involve the use of tourist motivation perspectives to illuminate the process (e.g.Yoo Gretzel,2008;Zhang, Pan,Smith,Li,2008).Motivation patterns provide the value and importance to the weightings of risk that tourists make in using information.The operation of availability heuristics(existing and recent knowledge)and representativeness heuristics(tried routines)seem to figure in some tourists'decisions and play a role in the emotional input into choices (De Martino,Kumaran,Seymour,Dolan,2006). These influences interact with the rational processes that are the focus of approaches such as expected utility theory,the approach which has underpinned most tourism models of destination decision making (Goldstein,2011). Despite these beginnings,a fully adequate link between understanding motives theoretically and applying them to destination choice models and problems has not yet been developed.Much of the tourism industry and applied literature uses features of the destination as de facto motives and while this contradicts the proper definition of motives as inherently push factors,there is a need to construct more bridges between these kinds of applied inquiries into motives and choices and the more formal academic literature
6 then linked to tourist characteristics. As the detailed work on the tapestry of tourist motives evolves, contemporary work on motivation patterns may identify common staged or sequential patterns closely aligned to Cohen’s formulation. Destination choices One way, but not the only way, of integrating travel motivation studies into other aspects of tourism research lies in connecting the motivation models and patterns to destination choice studies. There are many kinds of travel decisions and choices including selecting transport, accommodation and activity options. In more recent times the advent of consumer referral and evaluation systems, including popular internet sites such as TripAdvisor, have stimulated researchers’ interest in tourists’ within-destination choices. Nevertheless, the overriding historical concern of tourism researchers has been in destination image and selection (March & Woodside, 2005; Pike, 2002). Two broadly similar models, that of Um and Crompton (1990) and Woodside and Lysonski (1989) have dominated the field. These approaches and their derivatives systematically pursue a highly rational, choice set based, sequential process. This process consists of tourists supposedly engaging in an orderly sorting of alternatives, refining and filtering the options according to individual motives and the tourists’ personal circumstances, and ultimately selecting the one final destination. The approach implicitly leans on the structured, orderly choice model of decision making summarised in earlier cognition and social psychology studies by Janis and Mann (1973). Goldstein (2011) reports more up-to-date work in cognition which reveals that the nature of decision making and the processes it involves are powerfully affected by how problems are presented. In some circumstances individuals will be rational and follow logical routes while in others a range of biases and emotion-charged heuristics will be employed. The application of the heuristics approach to decision making can be illustrated by considering accommodation choices linked to TripAdvisor. How are the comments read? Do would-be accommodation users follow a carefully structured elimination process built on rational consideration of the available options? Or do they glance at the first two or three comments and search for a heuristic such as a really negative comment which overpowers all the others? The potential answers to these questions are being worked out in the consumer behaviour and tourism studies literature and are beginning to involve the use of tourist motivation perspectives to illuminate the process (e.g. Yoo & Gretzel, 2008; Zhang, Pan, Smith, & Li, 2008). Motivation patterns provide the value and importance to the weightings of risk that tourists make in using information. The operation of availability heuristics (existing and recent knowledge) and representativeness heuristics (tried routines) seem to figure in some tourists’ decisions and play a role in the emotional input into choices (De Martino, Kumaran, Seymour, & Dolan, 2006). These influences interact with the rational processes that are the focus of approaches such as expected utility theory, the approach which has underpinned most tourism models of destination decision making (Goldstein, 2011). Despite these beginnings, a fully adequate link between understanding motives theoretically and applying them to destination choice models and problems has not yet been developed. Much of the tourism industry and applied literature uses features of the destination as de facto motives and while this contradicts the proper definition of motives as inherently push factors, there is a need to construct more bridges between these kinds of applied inquiries into motives and choices and the more formal academic literature
7 ATTITUDES AND SATISFACTION New directions in attitude research Some human behaviours have a predominantly instinctual or fixed biological basis; breathing,coughing,laughing,salivating,and becoming sexually aroused are only partially under conscious control.Much other human behaviour is assumed to be reliant on the operation and influence of a"mental or neural state of readiness. organised through experience,exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related"(Allport, 1935:799).These states are attitudes.The long history of attitude research in psychology has seen several shifts of emphasis but there is continuing agreement that attitudes have an affective or evaluative component,a cognitive or knowledge based dimension and an implicit behavioural link(Furnham,2008;McGuire,1986).Unlike motives,attitudes are not so much drivers of behaviour but subtle summaries,shapers and modifiers of behavioural directions. The assessment of attitudes in tourism study is the basis of much research activity. There are appraisals of tourists'attitudes to destinations(e.g.,Litvin MacLaurin, 2001;Nadeau,Heslop,O'Reilly Luk,2008;Um and Crompton,1990)and tourism products(e.g.,Chang,Kivela Mak,2010;MacKay Campbell,2004;Park and Gretzel,2011).There are also traditions of assessing attitudes to the people tourists encounter while travelling (e.g.,Anastasopoulos,1992;Nyaupane,Teye Paris, 2008;Uriely Reichel,2000).In turn,studies of residents'attitudes to tourists occupy considerable space in the pages of tourism journals and monographs(e.g., Jurowski Gursoy,2004;Lindberg Johnson,1997;Vargas-Sanchez,Porras-Bueno, Plaza-Mejia,2011;Ward Berno,2011).A caveat about knowing what has been borrowed and how that study topic may be changing was delivered in the introduction to this paper.Such a caution is of particular relevance to the theme of attitudes The issues of interest can be developed by exploring some of the history of,and fundamental challenges to attitude research.In an early phase of attitude research in psychology-a period both pre-dating and flowing from Allport's definition-there was much emphasis on how to measure attitudes.The Likert and Thurstone scales used in much attitude research derive from this period in the 1930s and were developed through studies of soldiers'attitudes,work concerned with racial prejudice and reactions to the introduction of television in the 1950s and 1960s(Oppenheim, 1966:Sellitz,Jahoda,Deutsch Cook,1959).Studies of the relationships between attitudes and behaviour,followed by concerns with how to influence behaviour through persuasive communication(built largely on the much cited Reasoned Action model of Fishbein and Ajzen,1975 and its subsequent development,Ajzen's 1991 Theory of Planned Behaviour)were major steps in the trajectory of attitude work These traditions continue but have been relocated to some extent by an integration of attitude studies into the broad social cognition field which deals with how information is processed.Howarth(2006)characterises this approach as a view of human beings as "thinking machines".Importantly,there is now a pervasive interest in dual processing approaches to understanding such thinking,much of which is relevant to attitude analysis.In essence it is frequently argued that attitudes can be developed in one of two ways,the first is by deep processing or mindfulness and the second by
7 ATTITUDES AND SATISFACTION New directions in attitude research Some human behaviours have a predominantly instinctual or fixed biological basis; breathing, coughing, laughing, salivating, and becoming sexually aroused are only partially under conscious control. Much other human behaviour is assumed to be reliant on the operation and influence of a “mental or neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related” (Allport, 1935: 799). These states are attitudes. The long history of attitude research in psychology has seen several shifts of emphasis but there is continuing agreement that attitudes have an affective or evaluative component, a cognitive or knowledge based dimension and an implicit behavioural link (Furnham, 2008; McGuire, 1986). Unlike motives, attitudes are not so much drivers of behaviour but subtle summaries, shapers and modifiers of behavioural directions. The assessment of attitudes in tourism study is the basis of much research activity. There are appraisals of tourists’ attitudes to destinations (e.g., Litvin & MacLaurin, 2001; Nadeau, Heslop, O’Reilly & Luk, 2008; Um and Crompton, 1990) and tourism products (e.g., Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; MacKay & Campbell, 2004; Park and Gretzel, 2011). There are also traditions of assessing attitudes to the people tourists encounter while travelling (e.g., Anastasopoulos, 1992; Nyaupane, Teye & Paris, 2008; Uriely & Reichel, 2000). In turn, studies of residents’ attitudes to tourists occupy considerable space in the pages of tourism journals and monographs (e.g., Jurowski & Gursoy, 2004; Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Vargas-Sánchez, Porras-Bueno, & Plaza-Mejía, 2011; Ward & Berno, 2011). A caveat about knowing what has been borrowed and how that study topic may be changing was delivered in the introduction to this paper. Such a caution is of particular relevance to the theme of attitudes. The issues of interest can be developed by exploring some of the history of, and fundamental challenges to attitude research. In an early phase of attitude research in psychology – a period both pre-dating and flowing from Allport’s definition – there was much emphasis on how to measure attitudes. The Likert and Thurstone scales used in much attitude research derive from this period in the 1930s and were developed through studies of soldiers’ attitudes, work concerned with racial prejudice and reactions to the introduction of television in the 1950s and 1960s (Oppenheim, 1966; Sellitz, Jahoda, Deutsch & Cook, 1959). Studies of the relationships between attitudes and behaviour, followed by concerns with how to influence behaviour through persuasive communication (built largely on the much cited Reasoned Action model of Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975 and its subsequent development, Ajzen’s 1991 Theory of Planned Behaviour) were major steps in the trajectory of attitude work. These traditions continue but have been relocated to some extent by an integration of attitude studies into the broad social cognition field which deals with how information is processed. Howarth (2006) characterises this approach as a view of human beings as “thinking machines”. Importantly, there is now a pervasive interest in dual processing approaches to understanding such thinking, much of which is relevant to attitude analysis. In essence it is frequently argued that attitudes can be developed in one of two ways, the first is by deep processing or mindfulness and the second by
8 shallow processing or mindlessness (Langer 1989,2009).There are other terms for these two pathways including the Elaboration Likelihood Model(Petty Cacioppo 1986)and two systems approach(Kahneman,2011)but at core,one route provides well learned and accessible recall of information and perspectives while the other involves a ready acceptance of information which later may not be recalled or employed.Further attention to the specifics of the dual processing approach will be pursued in a later section on memory(Smith DeCoster,2000). Much of the development of these directions in attitude research occurred in North America.A largely European re-assessment of the cross-Atlantic work has been growing in recent decades.The challenge to existing approaches is fuelled by the limited success of linking attitudes and behaviour and the modest outcomes of persuasive communication efforts.The European researchers have been led in particular by those espousing a social representations framework(Farr and Moscovici. 1984:Moscovici,1990).In this view it is not sufficient to describe the content of attitudes and how they might develop or change solely at the individual level because they must be explained in relation to the social world in which the individual moves (Jahoda,1992;Moscovici,1990).The move amounts to a re-direction of attitude research emphasising the socially shared nature of people's summary and anticipatory responses and directing attention to,for example,racist talk and discourse rather than racist attitudes(Augoustinous Reynolds,2001;Wetherell Potter,1992).The approach is able to handle contradictory attitudes (or at least differences in attitudes expressed in survey responses as opposed to those expressed in conversation)and provides a strong basis for researchers to re-engage in critical commentary regarding issues of power and social justice.Such critical commentary tends to be marginalised when working within the strongly individualist tradition that treats people only as thinking machines The implications for tourism study may be developed as follows.Tourism researchers have arguably lost the dynamic,performative and communication dependent character of attitudes by reducing their assessment to tables of means derived from Likert scale responses(Crang,1997;Moore,2002).It can be suggested, following the recent reviews of the term,that the attitudes tourists hold towards the people and places visited are not fixed and standard entities but shifting,socially negotiated communications.Such exchanges are highly dependent on to whom tourists are speaking,the context of the conversation and its implications.In this sense attitudes and the values they represent are context dependent and contain insights about the people who trade these reactions. It has of course been convenient in psychology and tourism studies to be able to measure attitudes in numerical terms and to use these measures to develop a statistically based understanding of the patterns and forces shaping attitude change (cf. Pizam Mansfeld,2000).The recurring criticism here though is that this approach has been less effective in stimulating thought about the ways in which people acquire their views,present their attitudes and influence others.It is possible therefore to suggest ways in which the current work can be supplemented. A focus on the storytelling of tourists represents one way to conceive of this more social,communication linked role of attitudes(cf.Woodside,Cruikshank Dehuang, 2007).Many researchers are now suggesting that the concept of narrative or storytelling can be seen as central to the tourist experience(Guthrie Anderson
8 shallow processing or mindlessness (Langer 1989, 2009). There are other terms for these two pathways including the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) and two systems approach (Kahneman, 2011) but at core, one route provides well learned and accessible recall of information and perspectives while the other involves a ready acceptance of information which later may not be recalled or employed. Further attention to the specifics of the dual processing approach will be pursued in a later section on memory (Smith & DeCoster, 2000). Much of the development of these directions in attitude research occurred in North America. A largely European re-assessment of the cross-Atlantic work has been growing in recent decades. The challenge to existing approaches is fuelled by the limited success of linking attitudes and behaviour and the modest outcomes of persuasive communication efforts. The European researchers have been led in particular by those espousing a social representations framework (Farr and Moscovici, 1984; Moscovici, 1990). In this view it is not sufficient to describe the content of attitudes and how they might develop or change solely at the individual level because they must be explained in relation to the social world in which the individual moves (Jahoda, 1992; Moscovici, 1990). The move amounts to a re-direction of attitude research emphasising the socially shared nature of people’s summary and anticipatory responses and directing attention to, for example, racist talk and discourse rather than racist attitudes (Augoustinous & Reynolds, 2001; Wetherell & Potter, 1992). The approach is able to handle contradictory attitudes (or at least differences in attitudes expressed in survey responses as opposed to those expressed in conversation) and provides a strong basis for researchers to re-engage in critical commentary regarding issues of power and social justice. Such critical commentary tends to be marginalised when working within the strongly individualist tradition that treats people only as thinking machines. The implications for tourism study may be developed as follows. Tourism researchers have arguably lost the dynamic, performative and communication dependent character of attitudes by reducing their assessment to tables of means derived from Likert scale responses (Crang, 1997; Moore, 2002). It can be suggested, following the recent reviews of the term, that the attitudes tourists hold towards the people and places visited are not fixed and standard entities but shifting, socially negotiated communications. Such exchanges are highly dependent on to whom tourists are speaking, the context of the conversation and its implications. In this sense attitudes and the values they represent are context dependent and contain insights about the people who trade these reactions. It has of course been convenient in psychology and tourism studies to be able to measure attitudes in numerical terms and to use these measures to develop a statistically based understanding of the patterns and forces shaping attitude change (cf. Pizam & Mansfeld, 2000). The recurring criticism here though is that this approach has been less effective in stimulating thought about the ways in which people acquire their views, present their attitudes and influence others. It is possible therefore to suggest ways in which the current work can be supplemented. A focus on the storytelling of tourists represents one way to conceive of this more social, communication linked role of attitudes (cf. Woodside, Cruikshank & Dehuang, 2007). Many researchers are now suggesting that the concept of narrative or storytelling can be seen as central to the tourist experience (Guthrie & Anderson
9 2010;Moscardo,2010;Noy,2004).Stories are effective summaries of the tourists' encounters.They are packaged and delivered to others in discrete units to suit particular time frames and circumstances.Attitudes lie entangled within these narratives which draw on the broader concept of social representations;that is our everyday socially influenced theories about how the world works.Some narratives are distilled attitudes in the sense that they crystallise and highlight the positive and negative critical encounters which constitute an important part of holiday taking (Pritchard Havitz,2006).Importantly travel stories are often told more than once and in the telling and re-telling they form a solid data unit in the individual's memory store.In the re-telling process the actual people and encounters are re-imaged and re- imagined and take on the special character of central components of representations. When seen in this way attitudes derived from travel experiences are more than sets of evaluative responses to structured question formats;they are packages of information which are traded in daily life.The approach here can be seen as supplementing the standard attitude research.The latter is still of value in identifying some of what people think and experience but can benefit from newer work tracing how these perspectives are derived,communicated and updated to fit in with the commerce of social information exchange.Additional links to the nature of memory and the way information is processed and stored will be considered in a later section of this review. New dimensions in satisfaction research Studies of satisfaction in tourism represent one use of the more traditional approaches to attitudes.The work is valuable but there are ways to refresh the quality of what tourism researchers do.Ryan(2000)suggests that there are so many studies of satisfaction in the consumer behaviour literature that it would be an act of insanity or megalomania to try to review them.Potentially ignoring such advice,Bowen and Clarke(2009)do bravely provide a review of the tourism satisfaction literature which summarises both much earlier work and industry practices.Their conclusion suggests some new directions for satisfaction studies.The remarks echo earlier comments by Kozak(2001)and Pearce(2005).Bowen and Clarke conclude their review under the heading "Satisfaction is not enough"and observe: "Despite the voluminous academic writings on the subject of satisfaction and the industry obsession with satisfaction scores,perhaps it is time to think more closely about what satisfaction means in day to day conversation(something that is OK)- and figure out another more suitable term to capture what tourists truly seek"(2009: 155) The comment is timely but it is not simply a matter of finding another term.For researchers interested in the development of this area,seven challenges can be highlighted.The first and foremost issue is to recognise exactly what is meant by satisfaction.A return to mainstream psychology is again instructive at this point Within psychology satisfaction has no particular role or status as a concept.The derivation of the term in tourism research is via consumer behaviour studies and the roots of that approach are simply making an evaluative assessment of an item,good or service (Argyriou Melewar,2011;Schwarz,2006).This evaluative emphasis locates satisfaction assessment within the mainstream traditions of individual attitudes which have already been considered.Satisfaction as studied in tourism and much consumer behaviour is a specific type of attitude,one which occurs in a post-purchase or post-consumption time frame.Importantly,the interpretation of satisfaction as an
9 2010; Moscardo, 2010; Noy, 2004). Stories are effective summaries of the tourists’ encounters. They are packaged and delivered to others in discrete units to suit particular time frames and circumstances. Attitudes lie entangled within these narratives which draw on the broader concept of social representations; that is our everyday socially influenced theories about how the world works. Some narratives are distilled attitudes in the sense that they crystallise and highlight the positive and negative critical encounters which constitute an important part of holiday taking (Pritchard & Havitz, 2006). Importantly travel stories are often told more than once and in the telling and re-telling they form a solid data unit in the individual’s memory store. In the re-telling process the actual people and encounters are re-imaged and reimagined and take on the special character of central components of representations. When seen in this way attitudes derived from travel experiences are more than sets of evaluative responses to structured question formats; they are packages of information which are traded in daily life. The approach here can be seen as supplementing the standard attitude research. The latter is still of value in identifying some of what people think and experience but can benefit from newer work tracing how these perspectives are derived, communicated and updated to fit in with the commerce of social information exchange. Additional links to the nature of memory and the way information is processed and stored will be considered in a later section of this review. New dimensions in satisfaction research Studies of satisfaction in tourism represent one use of the more traditional approaches to attitudes. The work is valuable but there are ways to refresh the quality of what tourism researchers do. Ryan (2000) suggests that there are so many studies of satisfaction in the consumer behaviour literature that it would be an act of insanity or megalomania to try to review them. Potentially ignoring such advice, Bowen and Clarke (2009) do bravely provide a review of the tourism satisfaction literature which summarises both much earlier work and industry practices. Their conclusion suggests some new directions for satisfaction studies. The remarks echo earlier comments by Kozak (2001) and Pearce (2005). Bowen and Clarke conclude their review under the heading “Satisfaction is not enough” and observe: “Despite the voluminous academic writings on the subject of satisfaction and the industry obsession with satisfaction scores, perhaps it is time to think more closely about what satisfaction means in day to day conversation (something that is OK) – and figure out another more suitable term to capture what tourists truly seek” ( 2009: 155). The comment is timely but it is not simply a matter of finding another term. For researchers interested in the development of this area, seven challenges can be highlighted. The first and foremost issue is to recognise exactly what is meant by satisfaction. A return to mainstream psychology is again instructive at this point. Within psychology satisfaction has no particular role or status as a concept. The derivation of the term in tourism research is via consumer behaviour studies and the roots of that approach are simply making an evaluative assessment of an item, good or service (Argyriou & Melewar, 2011; Schwarz, 2006). This evaluative emphasis locates satisfaction assessment within the mainstream traditions of individual attitudes which have already been considered. Satisfaction as studied in tourism and much consumer behaviour is a specific type of attitude, one which occurs in a post-purchase or post-consumption time frame. Importantly, the interpretation of satisfaction as an
10 attitude directs attention to the full sense of the term which,as noted previously, commonly highlights affective,cognitive and implicit behavioural elements. Satisfaction as a type of attitude is particularly likely to be influenced by the social context,and communicated to others in the tourist's social world (Coghlan Pearce, 2010:Pearce 2005;Pearce Panchal,2011;Ryan,1995).As suggested earlier, narrative analysis can enhance the studies of attitudes of any type because the approach can address the social and dynamic nature of the concept(Guthrie Anderson,2010:Pearce,2010). Second,by recognising that satisfaction has core emotional components,a wider array of emotional states beyond the one simple term of favourability can usefully be employed to assess outcomes.Richins(1997)argues that consumption emotions differ in character and intensity from emotions that are experienced in other contexts. She generated a list of affective states that capture a substantial array of consumption emotions.Her list of potential emotional states which could be used to capture how tourists feel about the diverse experiences in which they may be involved include happy,contented,optimistic,pleased,worried,frustrated,tense,lonely,unfulfilled, discontented,irritated,sad and depressed. Third,measuring satisfaction as a post-experience outcome can benefit from a triangulation of methods.Assessing satisfaction and other evaluation responses with different tools enables researchers to check the reliability of the information received In particular,adopting varied methods usually alters the different social contexts in which data are collected thus modifying the reactive effects of any one measurement approach.Collecting information through survey responses is its own distinctive form of communication;enhancing that communication channel by permitting data from other pathways is likely to be instructive. A fourth issue for future attention is allied to our triangulation concern.In the existing work there is a close alignment between methods and conceptual approaches in this area.The popular expectancy disconfirmation paradigm(EDP)-where satisfaction is defined as the meeting or exceeding of expectations-works in some contexts and for some familiar products(Kozak 2001).The EDP framework goes too far however in equating satisfaction with its expectations-based assessment.As a number of commentators have noted,expectations may be vague and inadequate as well as very difficult to measure in advance of tourists'actually participating in the experience(Botterill,1987;de Crop,2001;Pearce,2005).These difficulties should not result in a view that satisfaction has not occurred.Measuring expectations and outcomes can be still seen as appropriate when satisfaction is conceptualised as a post-consumption attitude but such an approach may be restricted to fewer components of the evaluative array.More frequent uses of the benchmarking and importance-performance approaches and direct post-trip evaluation techniques are recommended so that continuing confusion resulting from defining satisfaction through one type of measurement is not perpetuated(Pearce Benckendorff,2006). A fifth and further issue is the need to assess more thoughtfully the interplay for tourists between their individual satisfaction and the satisfaction of other members of their travel party.The dominant tradition in satisfaction research,in fact almost the exclusive tradition,is to ask individuals for their own evaluations of their travels. Diener and Biswas-Diener(2008)observe that some respondents in Asian cultures, and potentially many other tourists,see their happiness and satisfaction as entirely bound up with and dependent on the good times of their close group.Collecting the perspectives of individuals on how other members of their travel party have enjoyed
10 attitude directs attention to the full sense of the term which, as noted previously, commonly highlights affective, cognitive and implicit behavioural elements. Satisfaction as a type of attitude is particularly likely to be influenced by the social context, and communicated to others in the tourist’s social world (Coghlan & Pearce, 2010; Pearce 2005; Pearce & Panchal, 2011; Ryan, 1995). As suggested earlier, narrative analysis can enhance the studies of attitudes of any type because the approach can address the social and dynamic nature of the concept (Guthrie & Anderson, 2010; Pearce, 2010). Second, by recognising that satisfaction has core emotional components, a wider array of emotional states beyond the one simple term of favourability can usefully be employed to assess outcomes. Richins (1997) argues that consumption emotions differ in character and intensity from emotions that are experienced in other contexts. She generated a list of affective states that capture a substantial array of consumption emotions. Her list of potential emotional states which could be used to capture how tourists feel about the diverse experiences in which they may be involved include happy, contented, optimistic, pleased, worried, frustrated, tense, lonely, unfulfilled, discontented, irritated, sad and depressed. Third, measuring satisfaction as a post-experience outcome can benefit from a triangulation of methods. Assessing satisfaction and other evaluation responses with different tools enables researchers to check the reliability of the information received. In particular, adopting varied methods usually alters the different social contexts in which data are collected thus modifying the reactive effects of any one measurement approach. Collecting information through survey responses is its own distinctive form of communication; enhancing that communication channel by permitting data from other pathways is likely to be instructive. A fourth issue for future attention is allied to our triangulation concern. In the existing work there is a close alignment between methods and conceptual approaches in this area. The popular expectancy disconfirmation paradigm (EDP) – where satisfaction is defined as the meeting or exceeding of expectations – works in some contexts and for some familiar products (Kozak 2001). The EDP framework goes too far however in equating satisfaction with its expectations-based assessment. As a number of commentators have noted, expectations may be vague and inadequate as well as very difficult to measure in advance of tourists’ actually participating in the experience (Botterill, 1987; de Crop, 2001; Pearce, 2005). These difficulties should not result in a view that satisfaction has not occurred. Measuring expectations and outcomes can be still seen as appropriate when satisfaction is conceptualised as a post-consumption attitude but such an approach may be restricted to fewer components of the evaluative array. More frequent uses of the benchmarking and importance-performance approaches and direct post-trip evaluation techniques are recommended so that continuing confusion resulting from defining satisfaction through one type of measurement is not perpetuated (Pearce & Benckendorff, 2006). A fifth and further issue is the need to assess more thoughtfully the interplay for tourists between their individual satisfaction and the satisfaction of other members of their travel party. The dominant tradition in satisfaction research, in fact almost the exclusive tradition, is to ask individuals for their own evaluations of their travels. Diener and Biswas-Diener (2008) observe that some respondents in Asian cultures, and potentially many other tourists, see their happiness and satisfaction as entirely bound up with and dependent on the good times of their close group. Collecting the perspectives of individuals on how other members of their travel party have enjoyed
