《旅游心理学 Tourism Psychology》课程教学资源（参考文献）ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM

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GRAHAM M.S.DANN RESUME Dann Graham,M.S.,"L'Anomie,le rehaussement du moi et le tourisme,"' Annals of Tourism Research,Vol.IV,No.4,mars/avril,1977,pp.184-194.. On a fait tres peu d'attention a l'examination sociologique de la motivation des touristes.Le present article pose la question nettement:"Pourquoi voyagent les touristes?"Sur le plan theorique,on propose une concen- tration sur les"facteurs de poussee"et,en particulier,sur ceux qui naissent de l'anomie et du rehaussement du moi du touriste meme. On soutient de plus que la presences de tels facteurs mene a la creation d'un monde de reve auquel le touriste projette de fuir periodiquement. Sur le plan empirique,I'article contient une evaluation des deux concepts mentionnes ci-dessus a la lumiere d'ur investigation ccente des attitudes des visiteurs a Barbados.On examine aussi les composants d'une typologie. INTRODUCTION It was Lundberg who complained about the lack of adequate research concerning tourist motivation.There exists a variety of perspectives on how a tourist behaves at a given destination,but few investigations begin with the question,"What makes tourists travel?"In seeking to remedy this"lacuna"at the sociological level,an attempt to answer this question was made by a supervised team of methodology students from the Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies.After a pre-test and pilot inquiry,a further 422 interviews were conducted of winter tourists in Barbados during the peak season months of January and February,1976.Visitors were stratified by country of residence,age,sex and socio-economic status,with immigration statistics acting as the basis for proportional representation of the above variables.A summary of the pertinent aspects of this research is presented here. WHAT MAKES TOURISTS TRAVEL? A review of the literature related to tourist motivation quickly reveals that much of what is said in answer to"what makes tourists travel?"can be seen to border on sociological assertion.One encounters statements such as: The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word,"Escape": escape from the dull,daily routine:escape from the familiar,the common- place,the ordinary;escape from the job,the boss,the customer,the commut- ing,the house,the lawn,the leaky faucets. Now while the above may well be pinpointing "the greatest reason for travel,"there is no empirical evidence to demonstrate this;nor is one told about the type of tourist where such a reason for travel predominates.Consequently,in designing the Barbados research,the need was felt for a theoretical frame of reference which could be tested at the level of hypothesis. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr '77 185

GRAHAM M.S. DANN RESUME Dann Graham, M. S., "L'Anomie, le rehaussement du moi et le tourisme," Annals of Tourisrn Research, Vol. IV, No. 4, mars/avril, 1977, pp. 184-194 -- On a fair tres peu d'attention a l'examination sociologique de la motivation des touristes. Le present article pose la question nettement: "Pourquoi voyagent les touristes?" Sur le plan theorique, on propose une concentration stir tes "'facteurs de poussee" et, en particulier, sur ceux qui naissent de l'anomie et du rehaussement du moi du touriste meme. On soutient de plus que la presences de tels facteurs mene a la creation d'un monde de reve auquel ie touriste projette de fuir periodiquement. Sur le plan empirique, l'article contient une evaluation des deux concepts mentionnes ci-dessus a la lumiere d'u~. investigation ccente de~ attitudes des visiteurs a Barbados. On examine aussi tes composants d'une typologie. INTRODUCTION It was Lundberg 6 who complained about the lack of adequate research concerning tourist motivation. There exists a variety of perspectives on how a tourist behaves at a given destination, but few investigations begin with the question, "What makes tourists travel?" In seeking to remedy this "lacuna" at the sociological level, an attempt to answer this question was made by a supervised team of methodology students from the Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies. After a pre-test and pilot inquiry, a further 422 interviews were conducted of winter tourists in Barbados during the peak season months of January and February, 1976. Visitors were stratified by country of residence, age, sex and socio-economic status, with immigration statistics acting as the basis for proportional representation of the above variables. A summary of the pertinent aspects of this research is presented here. WHAT MAKES TOURISTS TRAVEL? A review of the literature related to tourist motivation quickly reveals that much of what is said in answer to "what makes tourists travel?" can be seen to border on sociological assertion. One encounters statements such as: 'The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word, "Escape": escape from the dull, daily routine; escape from the familiar, the commonplace, the ordinary; escape from the job, the boss, the customer, the commuting, thehouse, the lawn, the leaky faucets. 5 Now while the above may well be pinpointing "the greatest reason for travel," there is no empirical evidence to demonstrate this; nor is one told about the type of tourist where such a reason for travel predominates. Consequently, in designing the Barbados research, the need was felt for a theoretical frame of reference which could be tested at the level of hypothesis. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apt '77 18~

ANOMIE,EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM A further familiarization with past surveys also indicated that the distinction between"push"and "pull"factors in tourism had generally been accepted.("Pull" factors are those which attract the tourist to a given resort (eg.sunshine,sea,etc.), and whose value is seen to reside in the obiect of travel."Push"factors,on the other hand,refer to the tourist as subject and deal with those factors predisposing him to travel (eg.escape,nostalgia,etc.).Moreover,it was seen that a preference had been displayed towards"pull"factors in seeking to explain why tourists travelled. As a result,"push"factors had either been placed in abeyance or were given a minimal treatment.Here again such a manoeuvre was questioned,and this for the following reasons.First,while a specific resort may hold a number of attractions for the potential tourist,his actual decision to visit such a destination is consequent on his prior need for travel.An examination of"push"factors is thus logically,and often temporally,antecedent to that of"pull"factors.Second,and by corollary,the question"what makes tourists travel"can only relate to the "push"factors as it is devoid of destination or value content,requirements of the"pull"factors.Finally, by examining"what makes tourists travel,"one is looking at a more elementary (and by implicaiton,causally prior)need than a specific reason for choice of resort (of secondary causal nature).Consequently,if one is to go beyond the level of description an investigation of "push"factors is indicated.It was further maintained that if these could be understood at the physiological and psychological levels then the theoretical framework of the research should reflect this.Consequently,it was hypo- thesised that motive for travel lay in the twin concepts of"anomie"and"ego-enhance- ment."A word about each is necessary ANOMIE Sociologically this term has received treatment from many since Durkheim's workon suicide Strictly speaking,nomie refers toa societywhosenm govern- ing interaction have lost their integrative force and where lawlessness and meaningless- ness prevail.Its derivative,anomia,however,applies to the individual,who clearly is affected by the social situation in which he finds himself.Nor is anomie a concept merely descriptive of nineteenth century Europe in the aftermath of the French and Industrial Revolutions,where increasing division of labor and its concomitant indivi- dualism had highlighted the tension of the individual in mass society.It appears to be equally applicable today,where there is conflict in wars,strikes,football hooligan- ism,muggings,highjackings and guerrilla violence.Economic instability too is often seen as being indicative of anomie,where competition demands that each indi- vidual fend for himself and the weakest go to the wall.Victims of inflation rarely see their aspirations fulfilled.A crisis of allegiance can be detected in declining religious affiliation,in increased divorce,and in the breakdown of democracy,where,in the majority of countries today,either there is sufficient lack of confidence in political leadership as to render them virtually ungovernable,or else power is held only through torture or the force of arms.Other indicators of anomie are the suicide rate and the numbers receiving psychiatric treatment.Anomie is therefore a term useful for its applicability. 186 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,May/Apr 77

ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM A further familiarization with past surveys also indicated that the distinction between "push" and "pull" factors in tourism had generally been accepted. ("Pull" factors are those which attract the tourist to a given resort (eg. sunshine, sea, etc.), and whose value is seen to reside in the object of travel. "Push" factors, on the other hand, refer to the tourist as subject and deal with those factors predisposing him to travel (eg. escape, nostalgia, etc.). Moreover, it was seen that a preference had been displayed towards "pull" factors in seeking to explain why tourists travelled. As a result, "push" factors had either been placed in abeyance or were given a minimal treatment. Here again such a manoeuvre was questioned, and this for the following reasons• First, while a specific resort may hold a number of attractions for the potential tourist, his actual decision to visit such a destination is consequent on his prior need for travel. An examination of "push" factors is thus logically, and often temporally, antecedent to that of "pull" factors. Seconcl, and by corollary, the question "what makes tourists travel" can only relate to the "push" factors asit is devoid of destination or value content, requirements of the "pull" factors• Finally, by examining ''what makes tourists travel," one is looking at a more elementary (and by implicaiton, causally prior) need than a specific reason for choice of resort (of secondary causal nature). Consequently, if one is to go beyond the level of description an investigation of "push" factors is indicated. It was further maintained that if these could be understood at the physiological and psychological levels then the theoretical framework of the research should reflect this. Consequently, it was hypothesised that motive for travel lay in the twin concepts of "anomie" and "ego-enhancement." A word about each is necessary. ANOMIE SociologicallY4this term has received treatment from many since Durkheim's • 10 work on suicide. Strictly speaking, anomie refers to a society whose norms governing interaction have lost their integrative force and where lawlessness and meaninglessness prevail. 2 Its derivative, anomia, however, applies to the individual, who clearly is affected by the social situation in which he finds himself. 9 Nor is anomie a concept merely descriptive of nineteenth century Europe in the aftermath of the French and Industrial Revolutions, where increasing division of labor and its concomitant individualism had highlighted the tension of the individual in mass society. It appears to be equally applicable today, where there is conflict in wars, strikes, football hooliganism, muggings, highjackings and guerrilla violence. Economic instability too is often seen as being indicative of anomie, where competition demands that each individual fend for himself and the weakest go to the wall. Victims of inflation rarely see their aspirations fulfilled• A crisis of allegiance can be detected in decfining religious affiliation, in increased divorce, and in the breakdown of democracy, where, in the majority of countries today, either there is sufficient lack of confidence in political leadership as to render them virtually ungovernable, or else power is held only through torture or the force of arms• Other indicators of anomie are the suicide rate and the numbers receiving psychiatric treatment. Anomie is therefore a term useful for its applicability. 186 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, May/Apr '77

GRAHAM M.S.DANN However,to the best of one's knowledge,anomie has not been associated with tourism.Now,given that the potential tourist lives in an anomic society along with everyone else,it is strange that the connection between his home situation and his leisure patterns has not been thoroughly investigated.A sensing of the connection between "what makes tourists travel"and the anomic society from which they come thus acts as a hallmark for the current theoretical perspective.It is claimed that a possible "push"factor for travel lies in the desire to transcend the feeling of isolation obtained in everyday life,where the tourist simply wishes to"get away from it all." Underlying the hypothesis is the need that man has for love and affection and the desire to communicate to his fellow man.However,if he lives in a large town or city, this possibility is often denied him.His commuting and his work account for most of the day,and what little remaining time he has at home is often spent in front of the television.His exhaustion permits only limited conversation with his wife and children,let alone friends and neighbors or relations.Yet the need for social inter- action is still present.Hence it can only be fulfilled away from the home environment, i.e.,when he is on holiday.A situation of anomie can thus be considered as predispos- ing him for travel.However anomie is not just present in cities.The habitant of a village may suffer from it,albeit for a different reason,namely over-personal contact and lack of privacy.In an attempt to avoid the prying and gossiping,he may isolate himself,where once more the need for social interaction manifests itself.Anomie can induce a travel-response in rural tourists too. EGO-ENHANCEMENT Like anomie,ego-enhancement derives from the level of personality needs(6,p.) Just as there is a need for social interaction,so too does man require to be recognized. Analogous to the desire for a bodily tune-up is the need to have one's ego enhanced or boosted from time to time.In sociological parlance,the desire for such recognition by others is often described in terms of"status."Where ambition is a cultural maxim,then there will also be the theoretical tendency for man to desire higher status,by means of which he will feel superior to those below him on the ladder of success.However,in the potential tourist's home situation,he has already been assigned a social position by his contemporaries,a position from which it is difficult to advance rapidly.And yet man's ego requires that such advancement be made Consequently,alternative strategies are employed to enhance the ego than that traditionally based on socio-economic status.One such strategy is that of travel. A tourist can go to a place where his social position is unknown and where he can feel superior by dint of this lack of knowledge.Additionally,on his return a further boost can be given to his ego in the recounting of his holiday experiences--trip dropping (6,p.124).If he goes to a prestige resort then he can assume greater status by paying a great deal or by mixing with an exclusive set.If he goes to a corner of the world relatively poorer than his own then he may obtain satisfaction of his need in lording it over the host community.Only travel provides such an opportunity for self recognition. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr'77 187

GRAHAM M.S. DANN However, to the best of one's knowledge, anomie has not been associated with tourism. Now, given that the potential tourist lives in an anomic society along with everyone else, it is strange that the connection between his home situation and his leisure patterns has not been thoroughly investigated. A sensing of the connection between "what makes tourists travel" and the anomic society from which they come thus acts as a hallmark for the current theoretical perspective. It is claimed that a possible "push" factor for travel lies in the desire to transcend the feeling of isolation obtained in everyday life, where the tourist simply wishes to "get away from it all." Underlying the hypothesis is the need that man has for love and affection and the desire to communicate to his fellow man. However, if he lives in a large town or city, this possibility is often denied him. His commuting and his work account for most of the day, and what little remaining time he has at home is often spent in front of the television. His exhaustion permits only limited conversation with his wife and children, let alone friends and neighbors or relations. Yet the need for social interaction is still present. Hence it can only be fulfilled away from the home environment, i.e., when he is on holiday. A situation of anomie can thus be considered as predisposing him for travel. However anomie is not just present in cities. The habitant of a village may suffer from it, albeit for a different reason, namely over-personal contact and lack of privacy. In an attempt to avoid the prying and gossiping, he may isolate himself, where once more the need for social interaction manifests itself. Anomie can induce a travel-response in rural tourists too. EGO-ENHANCEMENT Like anomie, ego-enhancement derives from the level of personality needs. (6' P" 118) Just as there is a need for social interaction, so too does man require to be recognized. Analogous to the desire for a bodily tune-up is the need to have one's ego enhanced or boosted from time to time. In sociological parlance, the desire for such recognition by others is often described in terms of "status." Where ambition is a cultural maxim, then there will also be the theoretical tendency for man to desire higher status, by means of which he will feel superior to those below him on the ladder of success. However, in the potential tourist's home situation, he has already been assigned a social position by his contemporaries, a position from which it is difficult to advance rapidly. And yet man's ego requires that such advancement be made. Consequently, alternative strategies are employed to enhance the ego than that traditionally based on socio-economic status. One such strategy is that of travel. A tourist can go to a place where his social position is unknown and where he can feel superior by dint of this lack of knowledge. Additionally, on his return a further boost can be given to his ego in the recounting of his holiday experiences--trip dropping (6, p. 124). If he goes to a prestige resort then he can assume greater status by paying a great deal or by mixing with an exclusive set. If he goes to a corner of the world relatively poorer than his own then he may obtain satisfaction of his need in lording it over the host community. Only travel provides such an opportunity for self recognition. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77 187

ANOMIE,EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM ANOMIE,EGO-ENHANCEMENT,AND FANTASY From the above descriptions of anomie and ego-enhancement,it should be clear that not only does travel represent the fulfillment of certain basic needs in the potential tourist,but that in so doing it offers him an alternative world to that in which he daily lives.It can be argued,for instance,that in the monotomy of suburbia,the faceless city or the public village,life only becomes tolerable with the thought that there are chances of periodic escape from such an existence,and that travel provides the ideal outles.Additionally,however,travel has the advantage of permitting the traveller to behave in a manner normally circumvented by the dictates of convention. When on holiday the tourist can overstep the bounds of fashion,tell a few stories normally deemed improper or inappropriate,wear flashy clothes,eat exotic food, get drunk,become more sexually permissive,alter his timetable,stay up half the night,listen to loud local music,etc.,in short,indulge in those kinds of behavior generally frowned upon in his home environment.The possibility of actually doing what he wishes in his world of travel,surely underlies that essentially such a world is one of fantasy,for fantasy is a wish or desire,expressive of a need,which cannot be fulfilled in terms of current role expectations,but which is capable of defining situa- tions once these role expectations,or the circumstances in which they are found,have been modified or removed.Related to anomie,the fantasy world of travel seeks to overcome the humdrum,the normlessness and meaninglessness of life,with more satisfying experiences.As regards ego-enhancement,travel presents the tourist with the opportu- nity to boost his ego in acting out an alien personality.Just what sub-types of fantasy are associated with anomie and ego-enhancement has been treated elsewhere.3 ANOMIE AND EGO-ENHANCEMENT PUT TO THE EMPIRICAL TEST Interspersed throughout the interview schedule were several items,which,when clustered,formed two scales,one indicative of anomie,the other of ego-enhancement. In the analysis of the data,a correlation matrix for each scale was computed and the following points noted:First,in each scale there was strong positive association among all items,Application of an F-test revealed all correlations to be significant at the 0.001 level.Second,further intercorrelation between anomie and ego-enhancement items either yielded weak or negative coefficients,thereby indicating the independence of the two sets of items.Third,calculation of the mean inter-item correlation for each item in the two scales demostrated no significant weakness of any one item.Consequent- ly there was no need for item deletion.Finally,the mean inter-item correlation for each scale was computed and from these two figures alpha coefficients of reliability calculated.The anomie scale yielded an alpha value of 0.86.For the ego-enhancement scale an alpha value of 0.804 was recorded.A degree of confidence in the two scales concerning their inherent reliability was therefore obtained.For a discussion of theoreti- cal validity,however,it is necessary to examine each of the items separately. 188 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr77

ANOMIE, EGO--ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT, AND FANTASY From the above descriptions of anomie and ego-enhancement, it should be clear that not only does travel represent the fulf'lllment of certain basic needs in the potential tourist, but that in so doing it offers him an alternative world to that in which he daily lives. It can be argued, for instance, that in the monotomy of suburbia, the faceless city or the public village, life only becomes tolerable with the thought that there are chances of periodic escape from such an existence, and that travel provides the ideal outles. Additionally, however, travel has the advantage of permitting the traveller to behave in a manner normally circumvented by the dictates of convention. When on holiday the tourist can overstep the bounds of fashion, tell a few stories normally deemed improper or inappropriate, wear flashy clothes, eat exotic food, get drunk, become more sexually permissive, alter his timetable, stay up half the night, listen to loud local music, etc., in short, indulge in those kinds of behavior generally frowned upon in his home environment. The possibility of actually doing what he wishes in his world of travel, surely underlies that essentially such a world is one of fantasy, for fantasy is a wish or desire, expressive of a need, which cannot be fulfilled in terms of current role expectations, but which is capable of defining situations once these role expectations, or the circumstances in which they are found, have been modified or removed. Related to anomie, the fantasy world of travel seeks to overcome the humdrum, the normlessness and meaninglessness of life, with more satisfying experiences. As regards ego-enhancement, travel presents the tourist with the opportunity to boost his ego in acting out an alien personality. Just what sub-types of fantasy are associated with anomie and ego-enhancement has been treated elsewhere. 3 ANOMIE AND EGO-ENHANCEMENT PUT TO THE EMPIRICAL TEST Interspersed throughout the interview schedule were several items, which, when clustered, formed two scales, one indicative of anomie, the other of ego-enhancement. In the analysis of the data, a correlation matrix for each scale was computed and the following points noted: First, in each scale there was strong positive association among all items, Application of an F-test revealed all correlations to be significant at the 0.001 level. Second, further intercorrelation between anomie and ego-enhancement items either yielded weak or negative coefficients, thereby indicating the independence of the two sets of items. Third, calculation of the mean inter-item correlation for each item in the two scales demostrated no significant weakness of any one item. Consequently there was no need for item deletion. Finally, the mean inter-item, correlation for each scale was computed and from these two figures alpha coefficients 8 of reliability calculated. The anomie scale yielded an alpha value of 0.86. For the ego-enhancement scale an alpha value of 0.804 was recorded. A degree of confidence in the two scales concerning their inherent reliability was therefore obtained. For a discussion of theoretical validity, however, it is necessary to examine each of the items separately. 188 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77

GRAHAM M.S.DANN ANOMIE SCALE The first item in the anomie scale concerned the tourist's need for a break from work.It was felt that not only would man be alienated in the work situation (cf.the Marxian hypothesis in this regard),but that such alienation would in itself be conducive to anomie,in turn disposing the potential tourist to travel.Although the above reasoning was not supplied in these terms by the interviewees,nevertheless, from comments received,it was clear that in many cases work produced monotomy, loneliness and lack of genuine social interaction,situations not corresponding to the personality needs of affection and communication.The needs still outstanding,they therefore had to be fulfilled elsewhere,i.e.not in the work situation,but when on holiday. Respondents were also asked if they felt more for less)relaxed now that they were on holiday.From the replies to this question,it was clear that the anomics viewed their vacation primarily in terms of relaxation and that such pre-trip expectations had become prophetically self-fulfilled.For them the "pull"factor of sunshine was consid- ered of secondary importance. It was further hypothesised that as the anomic had little social interaction in their home environment(this was subsequently tested and found to be the case),then with the need for such interaction still remaining unfulfilled,there would be a tendency for this category of tourist to interact to a much greater degree when in the holiday situation.In point of fact this hypothesis was borne out at the levels of both tourist and host community.Not only was above average interaction recorded vis-a-vis fellow visitors,hotel management,hotel staff,taxi drivers and resident Barbadians, but also a high degree of friendly reciprocity noted for each category.One also observed the tendency among the anomic tourists to discuss topics not related to their own home environment with the above groups.In other words,it was presum- ably felt that discussion of their own anomic situation would tend to resurrect those very sentiments from which they wished to escape.Instead it was found that the anomic preferred to talk about the life and culture of the people with whom they came into contact,in this way,replacing their own dull world with the more exciting world of the other. This desire for social interaction was further evidenced in two more items of the scale.Such tourists claimed that they liked mixing with those of a variety of backgrounds,and even with those of different race,precisely because they enjoyed meeting people.At this point the connection between anomie and the need for social interaction became even more convinving. It was also interesting to note the association between anomic motivation and fantasy.When such a respondent indicated that his specific choice of Barbados had a great deal to do with the "old worldy charm"and "romance"of the place,further ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr '77 189

GRAHAM M.S. DANN ANOMIE SCALE The first item in the anomie scale concerned the touiist's need for a break from work. It was felt that not only would man be alienated in the work situation (cf. the Marxian hypothesis in this regard?), but that such alienation would in itself be conducive to anomie, in turn disposing the potential tourist to travel Although the above reasoning was not supplied in these terms by the interviewees, nevertheless, from comments received, it was clear that in many cases work produced monotomy, loneliness and lack of genuine social interaction, situations not corresponding to the personality needs of affection and communication. The needs still outstanding, they therefore had to be fulfilled elsewhere, i.e. not in the work situation, but when on holiday. Respondents were also asked if they felt more (or less) relaxed now that they were on holiday. From the replies to this question, it was clear that the anomics viewed their vacation primarily in terms of relaxation and that such pre-trip expectations had become prophetically self-fulfilled. For them tile "pull" factor of sunshine was considered of secondary importance. It was further hypothesised that as the anomic had little social interaction in their home environment (this was subsequently tested and found to be the case), then with the need for such interaction still remaining unfulfilled, there would be a tendency for this category of tourist to interact to a much greater degree when in the holiday situation. In point of fact this hypothesis was borne out at the levels of both tourist and host community. Not only was above average interaction recorded vis-a-vis fellow visitors, hotel management, hotel staff, taxi drivers and resident Badaadians, but also a high degree of friendly reciprocity noted for each category. One also observed the tendency among the anomic tourists to discuss topics not related to theirown home environment with the above groups. In other words, it was presumably felt that discussion of their own anomic situation would tend to resurrect those very sentiments from which they wished to escape. Instead it was found that the anomic preferred to talk about the life and culture of the people with whom they came into contact, in this way, replacing their own dull world with the more exciting world of the other. This desire for social interaction was further evidenced in two more items of the scale. Such tourists claimed that they liked m&ing with those of a ¢arieW of backgrounds, and even with those of different race, precisely because they enjoyed meeting people. At this point the connection between anomie and the need for social interaction became even more convinving. ]t was also interesting to note the association between anomic motivation and fantasy. When such a respondent indicated that his specific choice of Barbados had a great deal to do with the "old worldy charm" and "romance" of the place, further ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77 189

ANOMIE,EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM questioning,and subsequent content analysis,revealed that for them the destination was very much a second world,incapable of being captured in their home environment; but made possible through periodic escape.Feelings of nostalgia for the "good old days"were revived by quaint old buildings,narrow streets donkey carts,sugar mills and the leisurely pace of the host community,and heavily contrasted with the concrete and polluted metropolis from which two thirds of the tourists came.For them the impossibility of turning the colck back to the days of service,smiles and neighborliness, was a fact of life.Thus their desire for these human conditions had to be fulfilled else. where,and what better than a Third World country which had not succumed to the “folly'”ofso-called“progress.”When questioned about their meaning of romance, these same tourists gave a variety of descriptions,ranging from the beauties of nature (sunsets,moonlit waters,palm trees,etc.)to the possibility of getting to know for the first time the person to whom they had been married for some years.A common theme running through all these replies,however,was that here at least one could fulfil those needs and desires denied them back home.For them Barbados was very much a dream come true EGO-ENHANCEMENT SCALE From the inquiry it became evident that much of the holiday enjoyment had been acticipated at the pre-trip stage.In fact when interviewees were asked to compare their motives for travel at both the pre-trip and on-trip stages of their holiday,their replies indicated that very little change had taken place.A 0.9I correlation between both sets of answers was confirmation of this finding.Moreover,it was discovered that original expectations and anticipations of the holiday were rarely altered by temporary inconveniences or discomfort on vacation,again lending weight to the importance of pre-trip attitudes among tourists.It was therefore considered useful to ask respon dents to recall those people to whom the holiday was mentioned prior to departure, and where reference was made to particular categories of persons,the type of discussion that took place.The reason for this last manoeuvre lay in the hypothesis that those who had ego-enhancement in their motivational orientation would be quick to point out the prestige aspects of their holiday to their contemporaries. Response to the question 'why did you mention your holiday to...?'were treated by content analysis and seen to fall into three major categories.In the first instance there was ego-enhancement itself.There was an actual need to"trip drop,"to create envy and to engage in status battles with others.The purpose of naming the prestige destination was that it was considered a status resort,and as such the means to boosting the tourist's ego.The second reason could be described in terms of utility value.A colleague,for example,would be informed of holiday plans so that a satisfac- tory work schedule could be arranged.A neighbor might be asked to keep an eye on the house or to mind the dog.Finally,it was possible to categorize a number of reasons not falling into either of the above two classifications,but which tended to emphasize the naturalness of the remarks,many of which contained a string courtesy element. 190 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr '77

ANOMIE, EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM questioning, and subsequent content analysis, revealed that for them the destination was very much a second world, incapable of being captured in their home environment: but made possible through periodic escape. Feelings of nostalgia for the "good old days" were revived by quaint old buildings, narrow streets, donkey carts, sugar mills and the leisurely pace of the host community, and heavily contrasted with the concrete and polluted metropolis from which two thirds of the tourists came. For them the impossibility of turning the colck back to the days of service, smiles and neighborliness, was a fact of life. Thus their desire for these human conditions had to be fulfilled elsewhere, and what better than a Third World country which had not succumed to the "folly" of so-called "progress." When questioned about their meaning of romance, these same tourists gave a variety of descriptions, ranging from the beauties of nature (sunsets, moonlit waters, palm trees, etc.) to the possibility of getting to know for the first time the person to whom they had been married for some years. A common theme running through all these replies, however, was that here at least one could fulfil those needs and desires denied them back home. For them Barbados was very much a dream come true. EGO-ENHANCEMENT SCALE From the inquiry it became evident that much of the holiday enjoyment had been acticipated at the pre-trip stage. In fact when interviewees were asked to compare their motives for travel at both the pre-trip and on-trip stages of their holiday, their replies indicated that very little change had taken place. A 0.91 correlation between both sets of answers was confirmation of this finding. Moreover, it was discovered that original expectations and anticipations of the holiday were rarely altered by temporary inconveniences or discomfort on vacation, again lending weight to the importance of pre-trip attitudes among tourists. It was therefore considered useful to ask respondents to recall those people to whom the holiday was mentioned prior to departure, and where reference was made to particular categories of persons, the type of discussion that took place. The reason for this last manoeuvre lay in the hypothesis that those who had ego-enhancement in their motivational orientation would be quick to point out the prestige aspects of their holiday to their contemporaries. Response to the question 'why did you mention your holiday to...?" were treated by content analysis and seen to fall into three major categories. In the first instance there was ego-enhancement itself. There was an actual need to "trip drop," to create envy and to engage in status battles with others. Tile purpose of naming the prestige destination was that it was considered a status resort, and as such the means to boosting the tourist's ego. The second reason could be described in terms of utility value. A colleague, for example, would be informed of holiday plans so that a satisfac~- tory work schedule could be arranged. A neighbor might be asked to keep an eye on the house or to mind the dog. Finally, it was possible to categorize a number of reasons hot falling into either of the above two classifications, but which tended to emphasize the naturalness of the remarks, many of which contained a string courtesy element. 190 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77

GRAHAM M.S.DANN Clearly in looking at ego-enhancement one was concerned with the first of these three sets of replies.The scale itself was formed when this set was applied to different groups to whom the holiday was mentioned,i.e.,fellow workers,friends,neighbors, relations and club members. THE ANOMIC TOURIST However,it still remained to be seen just what sort of tourist was anomically inclined and what type was more ego-enhancement orientated in his motivational patterns.To obtain an answer to this question the independent variables were clustered into two principal sets in a fashion analogous to the scale formation of the dependent variables.It was fur ther secn that Set One became associated with the anomie scale and that Set Two became aligned with the ego-enhancement scale.A variable by variable analysis of Set One thus presented one with a picture of the anomic tourist. The most satisfactory predictor variable of anomie was found to be marital status Possibly a reason why modern day marriage is more conducive to anomie than in the past. is that its present companionship'form places a greater strain on a more intense relation- ship between two people than the traditional or extended form.In this way it could inhibit relationships with others,a hallmark of the anomic tourist.as has previously been noted.(Nevertheless,obviously this is an area which requires further investigation) It was also discovered that there was an association between the various dependent variables on the anomie scale and above average socio-economic status,as measured by occupation,class of travel and type of accommodation on the island.As such status had been achieved through occupation,its reflection in more expensive tastes tended to reinforce social position and saw to it that status was maintained even in the holiday situation.The actual achievement of status through work,howevel.presumably must have entailed a certain amount of sacrifice in the area of social interaction.With men in higher status positions than women (in this sample of tourists),it therefore came as no surprise fo find males more anomically oriented.Similarly the young,who rated more highly on occupation than the elderly,displayed more of a tendency towards anomie in their attitudes.Contrary to expectation,however,was the discovery that those from small towns and rural areas were more anomically inclined than those from large cities.Perhaps this should cause one to reflect the aforementioned feeling that privacy had been invaded in the smaller community,forcing retirement of those who nevertheless still required communication with their fellow man.Thus,it would appear that anomie is not dependent on size of surrounding population but on the type of contact established with that population.Over-interaction in a rural setting can be just as conducive to anomie,or more so,as lack of interaction in a city environment. However,one realizes that this is another area which required further examination,with particular reference to additional types of urban/rural existence,eg.,the urban emi- grant,the urban immigrant,the inner city dweller,the isolated farmer,etc. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr '77 191

GRAHAM M.S. DANN Clearly in looking at ego-enhancement one was concerned with the first of these three sets of replies. The scale itself was formed when this set was applied to different groups to whom the holiday was mentioned, i.e., fellow workers, friends, neighbors, relations and club members. THE ANOM1C TOURIST However, it still remained to be seen just what sort of tourist was anomically inclined and what type was more ego-enhancement orientated in his motivational patterns. To obtain an answer to this question the independent variables were clustered into two principa! sets in a fashion analogous to the scale formation of the dependent variables. It was fu,thcr seen that Set One became associated with the anomie scale and that Set Two became aligned with the ego-enhancement scale. A variable by variable analysis of Set One thus presented one with a picture of the anomic tourist. The most satisfactory predictor variable of anomie was found to be rnarita/status Possibly a reason why modern day marriage is more conducive to anomie than in the past, is that its present companionship'form places a greater strain on a more intense relationship between two people than the traditional or extended form. In this way it could inhibit relationships with others, a hallmark of the anomic tourist, as has previously been noted. (Nevertheless, obviously this is an area which requires further investigation). It was also discovered that there was an association between the various dependent variables on the anomie sea le and above average socio-econornic status, as measured by occupation, class of travel and type of accommodation on the island. As such status had been achieved through occupation, its reflection in more expensive tastes tended to reinforce social position and saw to it that status was maintained even in the holiday situation. The actual achievement of status through work, however, presumably must have entailed a certain amount of sacrifice in the area of social interaction. Wnh men in higher status positions than women (in this sample of tourists), it therefore came as no surprise fo find males more anomically oriented. Similarly the young, who rated more highly on occupation than the elderly,displayed more of a tendency towards anomie in their attitudes. Contrary to expectation, however, was the discovery that those from small towns and rural areas were more anomically inclined than those from large cities. Perhaps this should cause one to reflect the aforementioned feeling that privacy had been invaded in the smaller community, forcing retirement of those who nevertheless still required communication with their fellow man. Thus, it would appear that anomie is not dependent on size of surrounding population but on the type of contact established with that population. Over-interaction in a rural setting can be just as conducive to anomie, or more so, as lack of interaction in a city environment. However, one realizes that this is another area which required further examination, with particular reference to additional types of urban/rural existence, eg., the urban emigrant, the urban immigrant, the inner city dweller, the isolated farmer, etc. ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77 191

ANOMIE,EGO-ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM Repeaters(those who had visited Barbados on at least one previous occasion)and those with above average knowledge of the island tended to.fall into the anomie cate- gory.Upon reflection,the reason for this is fairly clear.The potential tourist suffering from anomie knows that life can become more bearable once there is a place to which he can escape.If such a location fits all his other requirements (and no better alterna- tive offers itself),then it is logical for him to continue frequenting it,to the extent that he becomes categorised as a repeater.Naturally for such a choice to be made a certain amount of knowledge about the place is necessary. Finally,it was possible to measure degree of anomie by crosstabulation of replies with country of residence (this being a nominal variable).Of the five major national groups comprising Barbades's tourists,those from the Caribbean,the United States and Europe,appeared to be the most anomic in their orientation.Just why this was the case can possibly be explained in terms of a predominance of rural characteristics and above average socio-economic status,particularly if one is correct in hypothesising a rural mentality even in West Indian metropolitan centers.No doubt other explanations are available,but,with absesce of further independent data from the survey,it was felt that additional conclusions would border on the use of stereotype. THE EGO-ENHANCEMENT TOURIST This type of tourist was found to be the mirror image of the former,in that an association with ego-enhancement was established with the opposite end of the dicho- tomy of independent variables correlating with anomie.Only the strength,or predominance,of the relationship varied. In this instance socio-economic status was the key variable,only this time income played a more important role than the category of accommodation.The tendency was observed for those of lower paid occupations who had travelled by charter of packaged arrangements to have mentioned the holiday to various sets of people for ego-enhancement reasons.Clearly this finding upheld the hypothesis that there would be a propensity towards"trip dropping"and other forms of ego-enhancement where accepted forms of status achievement were unavailable. From this it was but one stage in the argument to anticipate a higher proportion of elderly and female respondents to be found in this category.That this was the case can be explained in terms of socio-economic status,where both categories of potential tourist could be seen in a state of relative deprivation in contrast to their young male counterparts.As far as the elderly are concerned,it is also worth mentioning in the above connection that the aging process itself is one of increasing loss of status culminating in retirement.In this instance the alternative strategy to reminiscence would be that of status achievement through travel. There was also a higher proportion of first-timers(and those with scanty knowledge 192 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr'77

ANOMIE, EGO--ENHANCEMENT AND TOURISM Repeaters (those who had visited Barbados on at least one previous occasion) and those with above average knowledge of the island tended to.fall into the anomie category. Upon reflection, the reason for this is fairly clear. The potential tourist suffering from anomie knows that life can become more bearable once there is a place to which he can escape. If such a location fits all his other requirements (and no better alternative offers itself), then it is logical for him to continue frequenting it, to the extent that he becomes categorised as a repeater. Naturally for such a choice to be made a certain amount of knowledge about the place is necessary. Finally, it was possible to measure degree of anomie by crosstabulation of replies with country ofreddence (this being a nominal variable). Of the five major national groups comprising Barbades's tourists, those from the Caribbean, the United States and Europe, appeared to be the most anomic in their orientation. Just why this was the case can possibly be explained in terms of a predominance of rural characteristics and above average socio-economic status, particularly if one is correct in hypothesising a rural mentality even in West Indian metropolitan centers. No doubt other explanations are available, but, with absesce of further independent data from the survey, it was felt that additional conclusions would border on the use of stereotype. THE EGO-ENHANCEMENT TOURIST This type of tourist was found to be the mirror image of the former, in that an association with ego-enhancement was established with the opposite end of the dichotomy of independent variables correlating with anomie. Only the strength, or predominance, of the relationship varied. In this instance socio-economic status was the key variable, only this time income played a more important role than the category of accommodation. The tendency was observed for those of lower paid occupations who had travelled by charter oF packaged arrangements to have mentioned the holiday to various sets of people for ego-enhancement reasons. Clearly this finding upheld the hypothesis that there would be a propensity towards "trip dropping" and other forms of ego-enhancement where accepted forms of status achievement were unavailable. From this it was but one stage in the argument to anticipate a higher proportion of elderly and f~nale respondents to be found in this category. That this was the case can be explained in terms of socio-economic status, where both categories of potential tourist .could be seen in a state of relative deprivation in contrast to their young male counterparts. As far as the elderly are concerned, it is also worth mentioning in the above connection that the aging process itself is one of increasing loss of status culminating in retirement. In this instance the alternative strategy to reminiscence would be that of status achievement through travel. There was also a higher proportion of first-timers (and those with scanty knowledge 192 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77

GRAHAM M.S.DANN of Barbados)among the ego-enhancement orientated.Given the nature of ego-enhance- ment itself,and the need to impress by the mention of a status resort.presumably such a need is better satisfied in inverse proportion to the number of times of visiting the prestige location.After all,it is the nature of a good story that it be not subject to repetition. Further associations with ego-enhancement were detected among the single and those from large cities,although the strength of the relationship was diminished in comparison with the predictive qualities of the polar opposites of these variables in connection with anomie.It is likely that the association of the above variables with ego-enhancement was due to their interdependence with socio-economic status,i.e. a greater preponderance of unemployment and lower paid positions in these two categories in comparison with their polar opposites. Finally,it was noted that those visitors from Canada,and to a lesser extent those from United Kingdom.were more ego-enhancement in their orientation than those from other locales.The data at hand do not provide sufficient explanation for this phenomenon. AN AREA OF FURTHER INVESTIGATION It has been mentioned already that independent variables varied in strength as well as direction,in their association with the two scales of anomie and ego-enhancement. For this reason some had more satisfactory predictive value than others.At present. analysis is being undertaken to provide a system of weighting for each variable,whereby a continuum has been constructed with anomie and ego-enhancement as its polar coordinates,allowing for intervening stages between the two (ideal)types.The weighting of variables thus should provide a fairly reliable indication of where any given tourist can be placed along the continuum.The results of this investigation should be available in the near future,together with a fuller account of the theoretical and empirical impli- cations of the study. CONCLUSION The question was asked,"What makes tourists travel?,"and it has been seen that by focusing on "push"factors one is able to tackle more easily the problem of moti- vation.Further discussion has shown that two basic types of tourist orientation were evidenced by the inquiry--those of anomie and ego-enhancement,and that these in turn both had a strong fantasy component.The various items of the above attitude scales were then briefly examined.Finally,by looking at the independent variables, it was possible to observe the type of tourist aligned to the respective orientations. As such,therefore,it is claimed,a contribution has been made towards the sociological ernoftheouris.☐☐ ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH,Mar/Apr '77 193

GRAHAM M.S. DANN of Barbados) among the ego-enhancement orientated. Given the nature of ego-enhancement itself, and the need to impress by the mention of a status resort, presumably such a need is better satisfied in inverse proportion to the number of times of visiting the prestige location. After all, it is the nature of a good story tlmt it be not subject to repetition. Further associations with ego-enhancement were detected among the single and those from large cities, although tile strength of the relationship was diminished in comparison with the predictive qualities of the polar opposites of these variables in connection with anomie. It is likely that the association of the above variables with ego-enhancement was due to their interdependence with socio-economic status, i.e. a greater preponderance of unemployment and lower paid positions in these two categories in comparison with their polar opposites. Finally, it was noted that those visitors from Canada, and to a lesser extent those from United Kingdom, were more ego-enhancement in their orientation than those from other locales. The data at hand do not provide sufficient explanation for this phenomenon. AN AREA OF FURTHER INVESTIGATION It has been mentioned already that independent variables varied in strength as well as direction, in their association with the two scales of anomie and ego-enhancement, For this reason some had more satisfactory predictive value than others. At present, analysis is being undertaken to provide a system of weighting for each variable, whereby a continuum has been constructed with anomie and ego-enhancement as its polar coordinates, allowing for intervening stages between the two (ideal) types. The weighting of variables thus should provide a fairly reliable indication of where any given tourist can be placed along the continuum. The results of this investigation should be available in the near future, together with a fuller account of the theoretical and empirical impfications of the study. CONCLUSION The question was asked, "What makes tourists travel?," and it has been seen that by focusing on "push" factors one is able to tackle more easily the problem of motivation. Further discussion has shown that two basic types of tourist orientation were evidenced by the inquiry--those of anomie and ego-enhancement, and that these in turn both had a strong fantasy component. The various items of the above attitude scales were then briefly examined. Finally, by looking at the independent variables, it was possible to observe the type of tourist aligned to the respective orientations. As such, therefore, it is claimed, a contribution has been made towards the sociological understanding of the tourist. ~ ~ ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH, Mar/Apr '77 193

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